Foreword xii
Preface xiv
Nomenclature xvi
Before You Start Reading xxxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Carbon Dioxide 2
1.2 Conversion Processes 7
1.3 Polygeneration 10
1.4 Structure 12
Bibliography 15
2 Energy Conversion Processes 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Solid Fuels 21
2.2.1 Conventional Solid Fuels 24
2.2.2 Non-conventional Solid Fuels 26
2.2.3 Energy Carrier 32
Bibliography 33
3 Combustion 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Technologies and Processes 40
3.2.1 Grate-firing 40
3.2.2 Fluidized-bed Technology 46
3.2.2.1 Fixed-bed Combustion 53
3.2.2.2 Bubbling Fluidized-bed Combustion 55
3.2.2.3 Circulating Fluidized-bed Combustion 56
3.2.3 Pulverised Combustion 59
3.2.4 Solar-assisted Power Plant 65
3.2.5 Geothermal-assisted Power Plant 69
3.2.6 Technologies Comparison 70
3.3 Thermodynamic Cycle 78
3.3.1 Steam Rankine Cycle 78
3.3.2 Organic Rankine Cycle 81
3.3.3 Kalina Cycle 84
3.3.4 Carbon Dioxide Brayton Cycle 87
3.3.5 Cycle Comparison 88
3.4 Pollutant Emissions 90
3.4.1 Carbon Monoxide 94
3.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides 94
3.4.3 Sulphur Oxides 97
3.4.4 Hydrogen Chloride 101
3.4.5 Particulate Matter 102
3.4.6 Mercury 103
Bibliography 104
4 Gasification 111
4.1 Introduction 111
4.2 Technologies and Processes 113
4.2.1 Fixed-bed Gasifier 114
4.2.2 Entrained-flow Gasifier 116
4.2.3 Fluidized-bed Gasifier 117
4.2.3.1 Single Fluidized-bed Gasification 119
4.2.3.2 Dual Fluidized-bed Gasification 121
4.2.4 Plasma Gasification 132
4.2.5 Solar-driven Gasification 136
4.2.6 Microwave-assisted Gasification 137
4.2.7 Catalytic Gasification 138
4.2.8 Technologies Comparison 139
4.2.8.1 Feedstock 142
4.2.8.2 Product Gas Quality 144
4.2.8.3 Development Status 150
4.2.8.4 Capital and Operational Expenditures 150
4.3 Product Gas Purification and Conditioning 150
4.3.1 Particulate Matter 151
4.3.1.1 Electrostatic Precipitator 154
4.3.2 Halide and Trace Metals 155
4.3.3 Tar and Hydrocarbons 156
4.3.4 Hydrogen-to-carbon Monoxide Ratio 158
4.3.5 Acid Gas Removal 161
4.4 Syngas Conversion Technologies 162
4.4.1 Synthesis of Fuels and Chemicals 163
4.4.1.1 Ammonia Synthesis 166
4.4.1.2 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 167
4.4.1.3 Methanol Synthesis 169
4.4.1.4 Mixed Alcohols Synthesis 171
4.4.1.5 Syngas Fermentation 172
4.4.1.6 Hydrogen Synthesis 173
4.4.1.7 Technologies Comparison 175
4.4.2 Power and Heat Generation 178
4.4.2.1 Single-cycle Gas Turbine 178
4.4.2.2 Combined Cycle Power Plant 182
4.4.2.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine 186
4.4.2.4 Fuel Cell 188
4.4.2.5 Technologies Comparison 191
Bibliography 193
5 Other Conversion Technologies 205
5.1 Pyrolysis 205
5.1.1 Technologies and Processes 206
5.1.2 Technologies Comparison 208
5.2 Hydrothermal Process 210
5.3 Steam Reforming 212
5.3.1 Technologies and Processes 214
5.3.1.1 Conventional SR 214
5.3.1.2 Dry Reforming 216
5.3.1.3 Partial Oxidation 216
5.3.1.4 Other Processes 217
5.3.2 Technologies Comparison 218
Bibliography 220
6 Semi-industrial Scale Conversion Experiments 223
6.1 Introduction 223
6.2 Combustion 223
6.2.1 Fluidized-bed Combustion 223
6.2.2 Pulverised Combustion 236
6.3 Gasification 240
6.3.1 High-temperature Winkler 240
6.3.2 Chemical-looping Gasification 247
Bibliography 256
7 Carbon Capture, Storage/Utilisation 259
7.1 Introduction 259
7.1.1 Stationary Carbon Capture 261
7.1.2 Mobile Carbon Capture 266
7.1.3 Negative Carbon Emissions 268
7.2 CO2 Transportation 274
7.3 CO2 Storage/Utilisation 275
Bibliography 278
8 Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 283
8.1 Introduction 283
8.2 Conversion Processes 284
8.2.1 Gasification 284
8.2.2 Steam Reforming 285
8.3 Carbon Capture Methods 285
8.3.1 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 285
8.3.1.1 Physical Absorption Processes 285
8.3.1.2 Chemical Absorption Processes 289
8.3.2 Adsorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 295
8.3.2.1 Physical Adsorption Processes 295
8.3.2.2 Chemical Adsorption Processes 298
8.3.3 Other Carbon Capture Processes 298
8.3.3.1 Membrane-based Processes 298
8.3.3.2 Low-temperature Separation Processes 304
8.3.3.3 Solar-assisted Pre-combustion Processes 305
Bibliography 306
9 Post-combustion Carbon Capture 311
9.1 Introduction 311
9.2 Carbon Capture Methods 311
9.2.1 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 313
9.2.2 Adsorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 316
9.2.3 Other Carbon Capture Processes 319
9.2.3.1 Membrane-based Processes 319
9.2.3.2 Low-temperature Separation Processes 322
9.2.3.3 Solar-assisted Post-combustion Carbon Capture Processes 322
9.3 Carbonate-looping Process 323
9.3.1 Directly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 324
9.3.2 Indirectly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 325
9.3.3 Fundamentals and Process Layout 329
9.3.3.1 Chemical Equilibrium of the CaCO 3 -CaO System 331
9.3.3.2 Reaction Regimes of the CaCO 3 /CaO System 333
9.3.3.3 Deactivation of Sorbent 334
9.3.3.4 Evaluation Parameters of the Carbonate-looping Process 344
9.3.3.5 Pilot-scale Investigation of the CaL Process 346
Bibliography 349
10 Oxyfuel Combustion 359
10.1 Introduction 359
10.2 Non-cryogenic Processes 363
10.2.1 Adsorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 363
10.2.2 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 364
10.2.3 Membrane-based Carbon Capture Processes 365
10.2.3.1 Polymeric Membranes 365
10.2.3.2 Ion Transport Membrane 366
10.3 Cryogenic Processes 368
10.4 Solar-assisted Oxyfuel Combustion Processes 369
10.5 Technologies Comparison 370
10.6 Chemical-looping Combustion 372
10.6.1 CLC Processes 373
10.6.1.1 Gaseous Fuel CLC Processes 373
10.6.1.2 iG-CLC Processes 373
10.6.1.3 CLOU Processes 376
10.6.1.4 Syngas-CLC Processes 377
10.6.2 Oxygen Carrier 377
10.6.2.1 Reactivity 378
10.6.2.2 Reaction Mechanisms 380
10.6.2.3 Mechanical Resistance 382
10.6.2.4 Cost 382
10.6.3 Pilot-scale Investigation of CLC Process 384
10.6.3.1 Gaseous Fuels 384
10.6.3.2 Solid Fuels 387
Bibliography 392
11 Carbon Dioxide Utilisation 399
11.1 Introduction 399
11.2 Technologies and Processes 401
11.2.1 Direct Use 401
11.2.2 Indirect Use 403
11.2.2.1 Chemical Utilisation 403
11.2.2.2 Biological Utilisation 405
11.2.2.3 Photoelectrochemical, Electrochemical, and Photochemical Reduction 407
11.3 Technologies Comparison 411
Bibliography 415
12 Semi-industrial Scale Carbon Capture Experiments 419
12.1 Introduction 419
12.2 Carbonate-looping Process 419
12.2.1 Directly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 419
12.2.1.1 Waste-derived Fuels in Directly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 426
12.2.1.2 Indirectly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 429
12.3 Oxyfuel Combustion 436
12.3.1 Oxyfuel Fluidized-bed Combustion 436
12.3.2 Oxyfuel Pulverised Combustion 438
12.3.3 Chemical-looping Combustion 440
12.4 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 444
Bibliography 447
13 Sustainability and Polygeneration 449
13.1 Introduction 449
13.2 Conversion Devices and Outputs 455
13.2.1 Power, Heat, and Cooling 456
13.2.2 Chemicals and Fuels 463
13.2.3 Potable Water 465
13.2.4 Energy Storage System 469
13.3 Polygeneration with Carbon Capture 471
13.4 Methodologies for Polygeneration Evaluation 472
Bibliography 474
14 Polygeneration Plants Based on Fossil Fuels 479
14.1 Introduction 479
14.2 Coal-based Polygeneration 480
14.2.1 Energy Services 482
14.2.2 Synthesis of Chemicals and Fuels 486
14.2.3 Desalination Processes 493
14.3 Natural Gas-based Polygeneration 496
14.3.1 Energy Services 498
14.3.2 Synthesis of Chemicals and Fuels 502
14.3.3 Desalination Processes 504
14.4 Other Fossil Fuel-based Polygeneration 506
14.5 Multiple Fossil-fuels-based Polygeneration 509
Bibliography 511
15 Polygeneration Systems Based on Renewable Energy 521
15.1 Introduction 521
15.2 Biomass-based Polygeneration 522
15.2.1 Energy Services 524
15.2.2 Synthesis of Chemicals and Fuels 528
15.2.3 Desalination Processes 533
15.3 Solar-based Polygeneration 534
15.4 Geothermal-based Polygeneration 537
15.5 Wind-based Polygeneration 540
15.6 Multiple Renewable Energy-based Polygeneration 540
Bibliography 543
16 Hybrid Polygeneration Plants Based on Renewables and Fossil Fuels 553
Bibliography 561
17 Numerical Simulation of Polygeneration 567
Bibliography 569
18 Process Simulation 571
18.1 Introduction 571
18.2 Process Components 573
18.2.1 Connection Point 575
18.2.2 Thin-walled Tube 576
18.2.3 Thick-walled Tube 578
18.2.4 Turbomachines 581
18.3 Automation Components 584
18.3.1 Measurement Modules 585
18.3.2 Analogue Modules 585
18.3.3 Binary Modules 588
18.3.4 Signal Source Modules 591
18.3.5 Controller Modules 592
18.4 Electrical Components 593
18.4.1 Basic Modules 593
18.4.2 dc and AC Modules 594
18.5 Additional Components 596
18.6 Thermal Hydraulic Models 599
18.6.1 Mixture-flow Model 600
18.6.2 Two-fluid Model 603
18.6.2.1 Four-equation Flow Model 604
18.6.2.2 Five-equation Flow Model 605
18.6.2.3 Six-equation Flow Model 606
18.6.2.4 Seven-equation Model 611
18.6.3 Solution Method 615
Bibliography 615
19 Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation 619
19.1 Introduction 619
19.2 Single-phase Flow 620
19.2.1 Particle Methods 620
19.2.2 Grid-based Methods 622
19.3 Two-phase Flow 624
19.3.1 Mixture Model 627
19.3.2 Two-fluid Model 627
19.3.3 Discrete-particle Model 635
19.3.4 Hybrid Method 639
19.3.5 Balance Equations for Solid-phase 641
19.3.6 Interphase Coupling 645
19.4 Turbulence 649
Bibliography 650
20 Process and Computational Fluid Dynamics Studies 655
Bibliography 662
21 Conclusion 673
Index 679
