Preface xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Response Surface Methodology, 1
1.1.1 Approximating Response Functions, 2
1.1.2 The Sequential Nature of RSM, 7
1.1.3 Objectives and Typical Applications of RSM, 9
1.1.4 RSM and the Philosophy of Quality Improvement, 11
1.2 Product Design and Formulation (Mixture Problems), 11
1.3 Robust Design and Process Robustness Studies, 12
1.4 Useful References on RSM, 12
2 Building Empirical Models 13
2.1 Linear Regression Models, 13
2.2 Estimation of the Parameters in Linear Regression Models, 14
2.3 Properties of the Least Squares Estimators and Estimation of ?2, 22
2.4 Hypothesis Testing in Multiple Regression, 24
2.4.1 Test for Significance of Regression, 24
2.4.2 Tests on Individual Regression Coefficients and Groups of Coefficients, 27
2.5 Confidence Intervals in Multiple Regression, 31
2.5.1 Confidence Intervals on the Individual Regression Coefficients β, 32
2.5.2 A Joint Confidence Region on the Regression Coefficients β, 32
2.5.3 Confidence Interval on the Mean Response, 33
2.6 Prediction of New Response Observations, 35
2.7 Model Adequacy Checking, 36
2.7.1 Residual Analysis, 36
2.7.2 Scaling Residuals, 38
2.7.3 Influence Diagnostics, 42
2.7.4 Testing for Lack of Fit, 43
2.8 Fitting a Second-Order Model, 47
2.9 Qualitative Regressor Variables, 55
2.10 Transformation of the Response Variable, 61
Exercises, 66
3 Two-Level Factorial Designs 81
3.1 Introduction, 81
3.2 The 22 Design, 82
3.3 The 23 Design, 94
3.4 The General 2k Design, 103
3.5 A Single Replicate of the 2k Design, 108
3.6 2k Designs are Optimal Designs, 125
3.7 The Addition of Center Points to the 2k Design, 130
3.8 Blocking in the 2k Factorial Design, 135
3.8.1 Blocking in the Replicated Design, 135
3.8.2 Confounding in the 2k Design, 137
3.9 Split-Plot Designs, 141
Exercises, 146
4 Two-Level Fractional Factorial Designs 161
4.1 Introduction, 161
4.2 The One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design, 162
4.3 The One-Quarter Fraction of the 2k Design, 174
4.4 The General 2k−p Fractional Factorial Design, 184
4.5 Resolution III Designs, 188
4.6 Resolution IV and V Designs, 197
4.7 Alias Structures in Fractional Factorial and Other Designs, 198
4.8 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs, 200
4.8.1 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs for 6, 7, and 8 Factors in 16 Runs, 203
4.8.2 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs for 9 Through 14 Factors in 16 Runs, 209
4.8.3 Analysis of Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs, 213
4.9 Fractional Factorial Split-Plot Designs, 216
4.10 Summary, 219
Exercises, 220
5 Process Improvement with Steepest Ascent 233
5.1 Determining the Path of Steepest Ascent, 234
5.1.1 Development of the Procedure, 234
5.1.2 Practical Application of the Method of Steepest Ascent, 237
5.2 Consideration of Interaction and Curvature, 241
5.2.1 What About a Second Phase?, 244
5.2.2 What Happens Following Steepest Ascent?, 244
5.3 Effect of Scale (Choosing Range of Factors), 245
5.4 Confidence Region for Direction of Steepest Ascent, 247
5.5 Steepest Ascent Subject to a Linear Constraint, 250
5.6 Steepest Ascent in a Split-Plot Experiment, 254
Exercises, 262
6 The Analysis of Second-Order Response Surfaces 273
6.1 Second-Order Response Surface, 273
6.2 Second-Order Approximating Function, 274
6.2.1 The Nature of the Second-Order Function and Second-Order Surface, 274
6.2.2 Illustration of Second-Order Response Surfaces, 276
6.3 A Formal Analytical Approach to the Second-Order Model, 277
6.3.1 Location of the Stationary Point, 278
6.3.2 Nature of the Stationary Point (Canonical Analysis), 278
6.3.3 Ridge Systems, 282
6.3.4 Role of Contour Plots, 286
6.4 Ridge Analysis of the Response Surface, 289
6.4.1 Benefits of Ridge Analysis, 290
6.4.2 Mathematical Development of Ridge Analysis, 291
6.5 Sampling Properties of Response Surface Results, 296
6.5.1 Standard Error of Predicted Response, 296
6.5.2 Confidence Region on the Location of the Stationary Point, 299
6.5.3 Use and Computation of the Confidence Region on the Location of the Stationary Point, 300
6.5.4 Confidence Intervals on Eigenvalues in Canonical Analysis, 304
6.6 Further Comments Concerning Response Surface Analysis, 307
Exercises, 307
7 Multiple Response Optimization 325
7.1 Balancing Multiple Objectives, 325
7.2 Strategies for Multiple Response Optimization, 338
7.2.1 Overlaying Contour Plots, 339
7.2.2 Constrained Optimization, 340
7.2.3 Desirability Functions, 341
7.2.4 Pareto Front Optimization, 343
7.2.5 Other Options for Optimization, 349
7.3 A Sequential Process for Optimization—DMRCS, 350
7.4 Incorporating Uncertainty of Response Predictions into Optimization, 352
Exercises, 357
8 Design of Experiments for Fitting Response Surfaces—I 369
8.1 Desirable Properties of Response Surface Designs, 369
8.2 Operability Region, Region of Interest, and Metrics for Desirable Properties, 371
8.2.1 Metrics for Desirable Properties, 372
8.2.2 Model Inadequacy and Model Bias, 373
8.3 Design of Experiments for First-Order Models and First-Order Models with Interactions, 375
8.3.1 The First-Order Orthogonal Design, 376
8.3.2 Orthogonal Designs for Models Containing Interaction, 378
8.3.3 Other First-Order Orthogonal Designs—The Simplex Design, 381
8.3.4 Definitive Screening Designs, 385
8.3.5 Another Variance Property—Prediction Variance, 389
8.4 Designs for Fitting Second-Order Models, 393
8.4.1 The Class of Central Composite Designs, 393
8.4.2 Design Moments and Property of Rotatability, 399
8.4.3 Rotatability and the CCD, 403
8.4.4 More on Prediction Variance—Scaled, Unscaled, and Estimated, 406
8.4.5 The Face-Centered Cube in Cuboidal Regions, 408
8.4.6 Choosing between Spherical and Cuboidal Regions, 411
8.4.7 The Box–Behnken Design, 413
8.4.8 Definitive Screening Designs for Fitting Second-Order Models, 417
8.4.9 Orthogonal Blocking in Second-Order Designs, 422
Exercises, 434
9 Experimental Designs for Fitting Response Surfaces—II 451
9.1 Designs that Require a Relatively Small Run Size, 452
9.1.1 The Hoke Designs, 452
9.1.2 Koshal Design, 454
9.1.3 Hybrid Designs, 455
9.1.4 The Small Composite Design, 458
9.1.5 Some Saturated or Near-Saturated Cuboidal Designs, 462
9.1.6 Equiradial Designs, 463
9.2 General Criteria for Constructing, Evaluating, and Comparing Designed Experiments, 465
9.2.1 Practical Design Optimality, 467
9.2.2 Use of Design Efficiencies for Comparison of Standard Second-Order Designs, 474
9.2.3 Graphical Procedure for Evaluating the Prediction Capability of an RSM Design, 477
9.3 Computer-Generated Designs in RSM, 488
9.3.1 Important Relationship Between Prediction Variance and Design Augmentation for D-Optimality, 491
9.3.2 Algorithms for Computer-Generated Designs, 494
9.3.3 Comparison of D-, G-, and I-Optimal Designs, 497
9.3.4 Illustrations Involving Computer-Generated Design, 499
9.3.5 Computer-Generated Designs Involving Qualitative Variables, 508
9.4 Multiple Objective Computer-Generated Designs for RSM, 517
9.4.1 Pareto Front Optimization for Selecting a Design, 518
9.4.2 Pareto Aggregating Point Exchange Algorithm, 519
9.4.3 Using DMRCS for Design Optimization, 520
9.5 Some Final Comments Concerning Design Optimality and Computer-Generated Design, 525
Exercises, 527
10 Advanced Topics in Response Surface Methodology 543
10.1 Effects of Model Bias on the Fitted Model and Design, 543
10.2 A Design Criterion Involving Bias and Variance, 547
10.2.1 The Case of a First-Order Fitted Model and Cuboidal Region, 550
10.2.2 Minimum Bias Designs for a Spherical Region of Interest, 556
10.2.3 Simultaneous Consideration of Bias and Variance, 558
10.2.4 How Important Is Bias?, 558
10.3 Errors in Control of Design Levels, 560
10.4 Experiments with Computer Models, 563
10.4.1 Design for Computer Experiments, 567
10.4.2 Analysis for Computer Experiments, 570
10.4.3 Combining Information from Physical and Computer Experiments, 574
10.5 Minimum Bias Estimation of Response Surface Models, 575
10.6 Neural Networks, 579
10.7 Split-Plot Designs for Second-Order Models, 581
10.8 RSM for Non-Normal Responses—Generalized Linear Models, 591
10.8.1 Model Framework: The Link Function, 592
10.8.2 The Canonical Link Function, 593
10.8.3 Estimation of Model Coefficients, 593
10.8.4 Properties of Model Coefficients, 595
10.8.5 Model Deviance, 595
10.8.6 Overdispersion, 597
10.8.7 Examples, 598
10.8.8 Diagnostic Plots and Other Aspects of the GLM, 605
Exercises, 609
11 Robust Parameter Design and Process Robustness Studies 619
11.1 Introduction, 619
11.2 What is Parameter Design?, 619
11.2.1 Examples of Noise Variables, 620
11.2.2 An Example of Robust Product Design, 621
11.3 The Taguchi Approach, 622
11.3.1 Crossed Array Designs and Signal-to-Noise Ratios, 622
11.3.2 Analysis Methods, 625
11.3.3 Further Comments, 630
11.4 The Response Surface Approach, 631
11.4.1 The Role of the Control × Noise Interaction, 631
11.4.2 A Model Containing Both Control and Noise Variables, 635
11.4.3 Generalization of Mean and Variance Modeling, 638
11.4.4 Analysis Procedures Associated with the Two Response Surfaces, 642
11.4.5 Estimation of the Process Variance, 651
11.4.6 Direct Variance Modeling, 655
11.4.7 Use of Generalized Linear Models, 657
11.5 Experimental Designs For RPD and Process Robustness Studies, 661
11.5.1 Combined Array Designs, 661
11.5.2 Second-Order Designs, 663
11.5.3 Other Aspects of Design, 665
11.6 Dispersion Effects in Highly Fractionated Designs, 672
11.6.1 The Use of Residuals, 673
11.6.2 Further Diagnostic Information from Residuals, 674
11.6.3 Further Comments Concerning Variance Modeling, 680
Exercises, 684
12 Experiments with Mixtures 693
12.1 Introduction, 693
12.2 Simplex Designs and Canonical Mixture Polynomials, 696
12.2.1 Simplex Lattice Designs, 696
12.2.2 The Simplex-Centroid Design and Its Associated Polynomial, 704
12.2.3 Augmentation of Simplex Designs with Axial Runs, 707
12.3 Response Trace Plots, 716
12.4 Reparameterizing Canonical Mixture Models to Contain A Constant Term (?0), 716
Exercises, 720
13 Other Mixture Design and Analysis Techniques 731
13.1 Constraints on the Component Proportions, 731
13.1.1 Lower-Bound Constraints on the Component Proportions, 732
13.1.2 Upper-Bound Constraints on the Component Proportions, 743
13.1.3 Active Upper- and Lower-Bound Constraints, 747
13.1.4 Multicomponent Constraints, 758
13.2 Mixture Experiments Using Ratios of Components, 759
13.3 Process Variables in Mixture Experiments, 763
13.3.1 Mixture-Process Model and Design Basics, 763
13.3.2 Split-Plot Designs for Mixture-Process Experiments, 767
13.3.3 Robust Parameter Designs for Mixture-Process Experiments, 778
13.4 Screening Mixture Components, 783
Exercises, 785
Appendix 1 Moment Matrix of a Rotatable Design 797
Appendix 2 Rotatability of a Second-Order Equiradial Design 803
References 807
Index 821
