Optical Coherence Tomography

Principles and Applications

By: Mark E. Brezinski

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Hardcover | 25 August 2006

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Hardcover
632 Pages

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24.13 x 19.68 x 3.18

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This book gives a broad treatment of the subject which will include 1)the optics, science, and physics needed to understand the technology 2)a description of applications with a critical look at how the technology will successfully address actual clinical need, and 3) a discussion of delivery of OCT to the patient, FDA approval and comparisons with available competing technologies.

The required mathematical rigor will be present where needed but be presented in such a way that it will not prevent non-scientists and non-engineers from gaining a basic understanding of OCT and the applications as well as the issues of bringing the technology to the market.

* Optical Coherence Tomography is a new medical high-resolution imaging technology which offers distinct advantages over current medical imaging technologies and is attracting a large number of researchers.

* Provides non-scientists and non-engineers basic understanding of Optical Coherence Tomography applications and issues.

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You Can Find This Book In

Non-Fiction Medicine Medicine in General Medical Equipment & Techniques Pre-Clinical Medicine & Basic Sciences Engineering & Technology Biochemical Engineering Biotechnology Science Physics Optical Physics Nursing & Ancillary Services

Radiography Other Branches of Medicine Medical Imaging Electronics & Communications Engineering Electronics Engineering Electronic Devices & Materials

About the Author	p. v
Preface	p. xix
Acknowledgments	p. xxvii

The Basics (math, waves, etc.) for the Nonphysical Scientist	p. 3
General Properties of Waves and Coordinates	p. 4
Trigonometry	p. 6
Imaginary Numbers	p. 7
The Exponential e	p. 8
Infinite Series	p. 10
Differentiation	p. 11
Integration	p. 14
Differential Equations	p. 15
Vectors and Scalars	p. 16
Unit Vector	p. 17
Scalar and Vector Fields	p. 18
Matrices and Linear Algebra	p. 18
Waves	p. 19
Combining Waves of Two Wavelengths	p. 21
Fourier Series and Integrals	p. 23
Fourier Series	p. 24
Fourier Integral	p. 26
Dirac Delta Function	p. 27
Miscellaneous Basic Physics	p. 27
References	p. 28
	p. 29
Light and Electromagnetic Waves	p. 31
General	p. 32
Electromagnetic Spectrum	p. 32
Vector Calculus	p. 34
Divergence	p. 34
Curl	p. 34
Gradient	p. 35
Maxwell's Equations	p. 35
Faraday's Law	p. 36
Gauss's Law for Electrical Fields	p. 38
Gauss's Law for a Magnetic Field	p. 38
Ampere's Law	p. 38
Polarization	p. 39
Reflection	p. 42
Refraction	p. 44
Optical Components	p. 45
Lens	p. 45
Grin Lens	p. 46
Optical Fiber	p. 47
Energy Propagation	p. 51
Doppler Shifts	p. 51
References	p. 51
	p. 53
Light in Matter	p. 57
Oscillating Dipole Moment	p. 61
Dispersion	p. 65
Absorption	p. 65
Scattering	p. 66
Summary	p. 69
References	p. 69
Interference, Coherence, Diffraction, and Transfer Functions	p. 71
Coherence and Interference	p. 71
Coherence	p. 72
Interferometry and die Michelson Interferometer	p. 74
Partial Coherence Using a Source with Continuous Frequencies	p. 78
Diffraction	p. 80
Huygens and Huygens-Fresnel Principle	p. 81
Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction	p. 82
Diffraction Limited	p. 83
Convolution and Transfer Functions	p. 85
Transfer Function	p. 88
References	p. 91
	p. 93

Optical Coherence Tomography Theory	p. 97
General	p. 98
Time Domain OCT (TD-OCT)	p. 98
Interferometry with a Monochromatic Source	p. 98
Low Coherence Interferometry with OCT	p. 101
Determination of Axial Resolution	p. 106
Transfer Function	p. 112
Dispersion	p. 116
Lateral Resolution	p. 123
Light Beam	p. 123
Paraxial Wave Equation	p. 124
Relationship between the Paraboloidal and Gaussian Wave	p. 125
The Gaussian Wave	p. 125
Properties of a Gaussian Wave	p. 126
Important Points of a Gaussian Beam Relevant to OCT	p. 127
Speckle	p. 129
Spectral Radar or Fourier Domain OCT (FD-OCT)	p. 130
Swept Source (SS-OCT)	p. 134
The Resolution	p. 136
References	p. 137
Bibliography	p. 139
	p. 141
Optoelectronics and Optical Components	p. 147
General	p. 148
Sources	p. 148
Semiconductor Sources	p. 148
Femtosecond Lasers	p. 149
Doped Fiber Amplifiers	p. 149
Wavelength Scanning	p. 150
Interferometers	p. 150
Delay Lines	p. 151
Galvonometer Retroreflector	p. 152
Piezoelectric Fiber Stretcher	p. 152
Grating Based Delay Lines	p. 153
Rotating Elements	p. 156
Detectors	p. 156
CCD	p. 156
Detection Electronics	p. 157
TD-OCT	p. 158
FD-OCT	p. 158
A-D Conversion/Frame Grabbers	p. 160
Light Delivery Devices	p. 160
Rotational Catheters/Guidewires	p. 160
Translational Devices	p. 163
Forward Imaging	p. 164
MEMS	p. 164
References	p. 165
	p. 169
Noise and System Performance with TD-OCT and SD-OCT	p. 175
Introduction	p. 175
Definitions	p. 177
Noise	p. 178
Overview	p. 178
Noise in CCD versus Photodiode	p. 182
A-D Conversion in SD-OCT and TD-OCT	p. 184
Embodiment and Theory	p. 184
TD-OCT	p. 184
SD-OCT	p. 186
Detector Array Signal Integration	p. 188
SS-OCT	p. 190
Conclusion	p. 191
References	p. 193
Polarization and Polarization Sensitive OCT	p. 197
General	p. 198
Polarization Properties of Tissue	p. 198
Collagen	p. 199
Single Detector PS-OCT	p. 204
SDPS-OCT Theoretical Model	p. 207
Simulations with Layered Birefringent Phantoms	p. 215
Varying Differential Group Index (Layer Birefringence)	p. 215
Different Intra-Layer Medium	p. 215
Varying Layer Concentration	p. 217
Periodical Rotation of Polarization State in Reference Arm	p. 217
Use of the Fast Fourier Transform	p. 217
SDPS-OCT of Human Tissue	p. 223
Dual Detector PS-OCT	p. 228
Measurement of the Stokes Vector, Mueller Matrix, and Poincare's Sphere	p. 234
References	p. 237
	p. 241
Adjuvant Techniques: Absorption Spectroscopy, Contrast Probes, Phase Contrast, Elastography, and Entangled Photons	p. 245
General	p. 246
Absorption Spectroscopy	p. 246
Absorption	p. 246
Intrinsic Absorption	p. 247
Dual Source	p. 247
Single Source Same Frequency (Spectroscopic OCT)	p. 247
Second Harmonic Generation	p. 248
OCT Dyes/Probes	p. 250
Elastography	p. 252
Basic Concepts	p. 252
Ultrasound Elastography	p. 252
OCT Elastography	p. 253
Limitations of the Elastography Techniques	p. 254
Differential Phase Measurements	p. 256
Embodiment	p. 256
Limitations	p. 262
Entangled Photons	p. 262
General	p. 263
Entangled States Generation	p. 263
Interference Experiments	p. 264
Ghost Imaging	p. 267
Entanglement and OCT	p. 269
Conclusion	p. 272
References	p. 272
Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography	p. 277
The Principle of Doppler OCT	p. 278
Doppler Shift and Laser Doppler Velocimetry	p. 278
Optical Signal Evolution in Doppler OCT	p. 281
Interferogram Detection in Doppler OCT	p. 285
Signal Processing in Doppler OCT	p. 289
Signal Processing in Time Domain Doppler OCT	p. 290
Signal Processing in Spectral Domain Doppler OCT	p. 297
Applications of Doppler OCT	p. 298
References	p. 300
Digital Image Processing Techniques for Speckle Reduction, Enhancement, and Segmentation of Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Images	p. 305
Introduction	p. 306
Speckle Reduction Techniques	p. 307
Mean, Median, and Hybrid Median Filters	p. 308
Adaptive Filtering	p. 309
Other Techniques	p. 312
Evaluation of Image Enhancement Results	p. 313
Image Segmentation Techniques	p. 314
Thresholding	p. 315
Region Growing	p. 317
Watershed Algorithm	p. 318
Edge-Based Segmentation Techniques	p. 319
Other Segmentation Techniques	p. 322
Summary	p. 324
References	p. 325

Application of OCT to Clinical Imaging: Introduction	p. 333
Introduction	p. 334
Areas Where OCT Shows Promise as a Clinical Imaging Device	p. 334
When Biopsy Cannot Be Performed	p. 334
Where Sampling Errors with Conventional Biopsy Are Likely	p. 335
Guiding Surgical and Microsurgical Procedures	p. 335
Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of In Vitro Pathology	p. 335
Factors That Influence Decisions on the Clinical Relevance of OCT	p. 336
OCT Imaging of Human Tissue	p. 337
Methods for Validating the Structure in OCT Images	p. 339
General	p. 339
Histopathology	p. 339
Immunohistochemistry	p. 343
Enzymatic Assay	p. 343
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography	p. 345
Scanning Electron Microscopy	p. 345
Animal Models	p. 346
Justification of Need for Animals	p. 346
Justification for the Species	p. 347
Justification of the Total Number of Animals	p. 347
Drugs and Their Dosages Used for Anesthesia and Euthanasia	p. 347
Will the Animal Experience Discomfort and Is a Survival Model Utilized?	p. 348
Use of Experienced Personnel	p. 348
Registration	p. 348
Example Rat Protocol	p. 348
Statistical Analysis	p. 349
Role of Human Perception on Image Interpretation	p. 350
Conclusion	p. 351
References	p. 351
Other Technologies	p. 353
General	p. 353
Structural Imaging	p. 354
Confocal Microscopy	p. 354
High Frequency Ultrasound	p. 356
Magnetic Response Imaging	p. 358
Computer Tomography	p. 359
Light-Scattering Spectroscopy	p. 361
Spectroscopic Techniques	p. 361
Fluorescence	p. 362
Two-Photon Laser Scanning Microscopy	p. 365
Near Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy	p. 366
Raman Scattering	p. 367
References	p. 368
Introduction to Clinical Research Design and Analysis	p. 369
Elements of Study Design	p. 371
Choosing a Primary Research Question	p. 371
Descriptive versus Analytical Studies	p. 371
Threats to Validity	p. 372
Random Variability	p. 372
Bias	p. 373
Confounding	p. 374
Effect Modification	p. 374
Evaluating Threats to Validity	p. 376
Choice of Study Design	p. 376
Randomized, Blinded, Controlled Clinical Trials	p. 376
Other Study Designs	p. 378
Longitudinal Studies	p. 379
Cohort Studies	p. 379
Cross-Sectional Studies	p. 380
Case-Control Studies	p. 380
Nested Case-Control Studies	p. 381
Secondary Data	p. 381
Diagnostic Test Evaluation	p. 381
Elements of Data Analysis	p. 382
Types of Numerical Data	p. 382
Summarizing and Describing Data	p. 383
Variability in Data	p. 384
Making an Inference from Data	p. 385
Common Statistical Tests for Comparing Two Groups	p. 386
Power and Sample Size	p. 387
Evaluating Relationships among Continuous Measurements	p. 389
Multivariate Models	p. 389
References	p. 389
	p. 391
OCT in Cardiovascular Medicine	p. 393
General	p. 394
Acute Coronary Syndromes	p. 394
General	p. 394
Epidemiology	p. 395
Coronary Circulation	p. 397
Classification of Plaque	p. 398
Unstable Plaque Histopathology	p. 400
Triggers of Plaque Rupture	p. 401
Interventions	p. 403
Imaging Modalities	p. 409
OCT for Coronary Imaging	p. 414
Limitations	p. 420
Current State of Intravascular OCT Imaging	p. 427
Current OCT Markers for In Vivo Studies	p. 427
Potential Additional OCT Markers	p. 430
Technological Investigations	p. 434
Other Coronary Areas	p. 434
Stroke	p. 434
General	p. 434
Epidemiology	p. 435
Risk Factors	p. 435
Cerebral Circulation	p. 436
Carotid Plaque	p. 436
Imaging Approaches	p. 438
Treatment	p. 439
Pulmonary Hypertension	p. 440
Atrial Fibrillation	p. 443
Conclusion	p. 445
References	p. 446
OCT in the Musculoskeletal Disease	p. 459
Osteoarthritis	p. 460
General	p. 460
Cartilage Structure	p. 460
Osteoarthritis Cartilage	p. 461
Knee Anatomy	p. 461
Current Imaging Modalities	p. 462
Serum and Urine Markers	p. 463
Chondroprotection and Cartilage Repair	p. 464
In Vitro and In Vivo Human Data	p. 466
Current OA Animal Models	p. 473
Canine Anterior Cruciate Ligament Transection Model	p. 474
Rabbit Partial Medial Meniscectomy	p. 474
Rabbit ACLT	p. 474
Guinea Pigs	p. 475
Rats	p. 475
Mice	p. 475
Assessing Cartilage OA with OCT in the Rat	p. 475
Tendon/Ligaments	p. 481
General Ligaments and Tendons	p. 481
OCT Imaging of Tendons and Ligaments	p. 482
Achilles Tendinopathy	p. 483
Shoulder Pain	p. 484
Other Potential Applications	p. 486
Conclusion	p. 488
References	p. 488
OCT in Oncology	p. 493
General	p. 494
Epidemiology of Cancer	p. 494
Need for a Diagnostic Imaging Technique	p. 495
Epithelium	p. 495
Esophageal Cancer	p. 496
General	p. 496
Adenocarcinoma of the Esophagus	p. 497
Squamous Cell Carcinoma	p. 505
Gastric Cancer	p. 508
Epidemiology	p. 508
Risk Factors	p. 509
Staging	p. 510
Diagnosis	p. 510
Bladder Cancer	p. 512
Epidemiology	p. 512
Staging	p. 512
Diagnosis	p. 513
Lung Cancer	p. 514
Epidemiology	p. 514
Risk Factors	p. 516
Histopathology	p. 517
Staging System	p. 517
Treatment	p. 518
Screening	p. 519
Sclerosing Cholangitis and Cholangiocarcinoma	p. 522
Epidemiology	p. 522
Diagnosis	p. 524
Cervical Cancer	p. 526
Epidemiology/Histology	p. 526
Staging	p. 527
Diagnosis	p. 527
Treatment	p. 531
Other Potential Applications	p. 532
General	p. 532
Colon Cancer	p. 532
Postmenopausal Bleeding and Endometrial Carcinoma	p. 532
Breast Cancer	p. 533
Skin Cancer	p. 533
Oral and Pharyngeal Cancers	p. 534
Assessing Pathological Samples	p. 534
Conclusion	p. 534
References	p. 534
	p. 543
Other Applications and Conclusions	p. 547
General	p. 548
Dentistry	p. 548
General	p. 548
Anatomy and Histology	p. 548
Dental Caries	p. 551
Minimally Invasive Treatments	p. 553
Diagnosing Caries	p. 554
OCT and Dental	p. 555
Limitations	p. 557
Prostate Surgical Guidance	p. 558
General	p. 558
Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy	p. 559
Treatment	p. 560
OCT and BPH	p. 562
Nerve Repair	p. 563
General	p. 563
Repair	p. 566
Diagnostics	p. 567
OCT and Nerve Repair	p. 567
Vascular Repair	p. 568
General	p. 568
Vessel Re-anastomosis	p. 568
OCT and Arterial Repair	p. 570
Neurosurgery	p. 571
General	p. 571
Brain Tumors	p. 571
Imaging Brain Tumors	p. 573
OCT and Brain Tumor Resection	p. 574
The Role of OCT in Assessing Subfertility	p. 578
General	p. 578
The Oviduct	p. 580
Oviduct Pathology	p. 580
Infertility Testing	p. 581
Treatment	p. 582
OCT and Imaging the Fallopian Tubes	p. 583
Conclusion	p. 584
References	p. 585
Index	p. 591
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Optical Coherence Tomography

Principles and Applications

At a Glance

Hardcover

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