Foreword xv
Preface xvii
About the Companion Website xxi
1 Introduction 1
2 An Example: The Scalable Observation and Rescue System 5
3 Better Products – The Value of Systems Architecting 9
3.1 The Share of Systems Architecting in Making Better Products 9
3.2 Benefits that can be Achieved 10
3.2.1 Benefit for the Customer 10
3.2.2 Benefit for the Organization 12
3.3 Benefits that can be Communicated Inside the Organization 14
3.4 Beneficial Elements of Systems Architecting 15
3.5 Benefits of Model-Based Systems Architecting 16
4 Systems, Systems of Systems, and Cyber-Physical Systems 17
4.1 Definition of “System” 17
4.1.1 System Elements 19
4.1.2 System Context 20
4.1.3 System Characteristics 21
4.1.4 Purpose 22
4.1.5 System Evolution 23
4.2 Definition of “System of Systems” 23
4.3 Definition of “Cyber-Physical System” 26
4.4 Composition of a “Cyber-Physical System of Systems” 27
5 Definition of System Architecture 31
5.1 What Is Architecture? – Discussion of Some Existing Definitions 31
5.2 Relations Between Concepts of “System,” “Architecture,” and “Architecture Description” 33
5.3 Definition of “Architecture” 35
5.3.1 Interactions 36
5.3.2 Principles 37
5.3.3 Architecture Decisions 37
5.4 Functional and Physical Architecture 37
5.5 Taxonomy of Physical Architectures 39
5.5.1 Logical Architecture 40
5.5.2 Product Architecture 41
5.5.3 Base Architecture 41
5.6 Architecture Landscape for Systems 41
5.6.1 System Architecture 42
5.6.2 System Design 43
5.6.3 Discipline-Specific Architecture and Design 44
6 Model-Based Systems Architecting 45
7 Model Governance 51
7.1 Overview 51
7.2 Model Governance in Practice 52
8 Architecture Description 57
8.1 Architecture Descriptions for Stakeholders 58
8.2 Definition of “Architecture Description” 60
8.2.1 Architecture Viewpoints 62
8.2.2 Architecture Views 65
8.2.3 Architecture Decisions 67
8.2.4 Architecture Rationales 69
8.3 How to Get Architecture Descriptions? 69
8.3.1 Model-Based Vision 69
8.3.2 Forms and Templates 71
9 Architecture Patterns and Principles 75
9.1 The SYSMOD Zigzag Pattern 76
9.2 The Base Architecture 82
9.3 Cohesion and Coupling 85
9.4 Separation of Definition, Usage, and Run-Time 87
9.5 Separate Stable from Unstable Parts 89
9.6 The Ideal System 89
9.7 View and Model 90
9.8 Diagram Layout 92
9.9 System Model Structure 93
9.10 System Architecture Principles 95
9.11 Heuristics 95
9.11.1 Heuristics as a Tool for the System Architect 95
9.11.2 Simplify, Simplify, Simplify: Strength and Pitfall 97
10 Model-Based Requirements Engineering and Use Case Analysis 99
10.1 Requirement and Use Case Definitions 99
10.2 Model-Based Requirements and Use Case Analysis from the MBSA Viewpoint 102
10.2.1 Identify and Define Requirements 103
10.2.2 Specify the System Context 104
10.2.3 Identify Use Cases 105
10.2.4 Describe Use Case Flows 109
10.2.5 Model the Domain Knowledge 110
10.3 The SAMS Method 112
10.3.1 SAMS Method Definitions 113
10.3.2 SAMS Method 114
10.4 Use Cases 2.0 117
11 Perspectives, Viewpoints and Views in System Architecture 119
11.1 Introduction 119
11.2 The Functional Perspective 121
11.2.1 SysML Modeling of Functional Blocks 123
11.2.2 Architecture Views for the System Architect 124
11.2.3 Different Architecture Views for the Stakeholders of Different Functions 124
11.3 The Physical Perspective 125
11.3.1 Logical Architecture Example 126
11.3.2 Product Architecture Example 127
11.4 The Behavioral Perspective 130
11.5 The Layered Perspective 130
11.5.1 The Layered Approach 130
11.5.2 The Layered Perspective in Systems Architecting 132
11.5.3 Relation to the Domain Knowledge Model 134
11.5.4 Architecting the Layers 136
11.5.5 SysML Modeling of Layers 136
11.6 System Deployment Perspective 142
11.7 Other Perspectives 144
11.8 Relation to the System Context 146
11.8.1 Validity of the System Boundary 146
11.8.2 Using the System Context as a Part of the Stakeholder-Specific Views 146
11.8.3 Special System Context View for Verification 147
11.9 Mapping Different System Elements Across Different Levels 148
11.9.1 Functional-to-Physical Perspective Mapping 149
11.9.2 Mapping More Perspectives 153
11.9.3 Mapping Different Levels 153
11.10 Traceability 155
11.11 Perspectives and Architecture Views in Model-based Systems Architecting 155
11.11.1 Creating Different Architecture Views in a Model-Based Approach 155
11.11.2 Using SysML for Working with Different Perspectives and Architecture Views 157
11.11.3 The Importance of Architecture Viewpoints in Model-Based Systems Architecting 159
12 Typical Architecture Stakeholders 161
12.1 Overview 161
12.2 Requirements Engineering 162
12.3 Verification 163
12.4 Configuration Management 166
12.5 Engineering and Information Technology Disciplines 167
12.6 Project and Product Management 171
12.7 Risk Managers 174
12.8 Development Roadmap Planners 174
12.9 Production and Distribution 177
12.10 Suppliers 178
12.11 Marketing and Brand Management 178
12.12 Management 180
13 Roles 185
13.1 Roles 185
13.2 The System Architect Role 186
13.2.1 Objective 186
13.2.2 Responsibilities 186
13.2.3 Tasks 187
13.2.4 Competences 188
13.2.5 Required Skills of a System Architect 188
13.2.6 Required Skills for Model-Based Systems Architecting 190
13.3 System Architecture Teams 190
13.4 System Architecture Stakeholders 192
13.5 Recruiting System Architecture People 192
13.6 Talent Development for System Architects 194
14 Processes 199
14.1 Systems Architecting Processes 199
14.1.1 Overview 199
14.1.2 Example of Generic Process Steps 201
14.1.3 Example of Concrete Process Steps 202
14.1.4 Validation, Review, and Approval in a Model-Based Environment 203
14.2 Design Definition Process 207
14.3 Change and Configuration Management Processes 207
14.4 Other Processes Involving the System Architect 207
15 Tools for the Architect 209
16 Agile Approaches 213
16.1 The History of Iterative–Incremental Approaches 214
16.1.1 Project Mercury (NASA, 1958) 214
16.1.2 The New New Product Development Game (1986) 215
16.1.3 Boehm’s Spiral Model (1988) 216
16.1.4 Lean (1945 Onwards) 217
16.1.5 Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM, 1994) 219
16.1.6 Scrum (1995) 220
16.2 The Manifesto for Agile Software Development (2001) 221
16.3 Agile Principles in Systems Engineering 223
16.3.1 Facilitate Face-to-Face Communication 223
16.3.2 Create a State of Confidence 224
16.3.3 Build Transdisciplinary and Self-Organized Teams 225
16.3.4 Create a Learning Organization 225
16.3.5 Design, but No Big Design (Up-Front) 226
16.3.6 Reduce Dependencies 227
16.3.7 Foster a Positive Error Culture 228
16.4 Scaling Agile 228
16.5 System Architects in an Agile Environment 230
17 The FAS Method 233
17.1 Motivation 234
17.2 Functional Architectures for Systems 236
17.3 How the FAS Method Works 239
17.4 FAS Heuristics 242
17.5 FAS with SysML 244
17.5.1 Identifying Functional Groups 244
17.5.2 Modeling the Function Structure 246
17.5.3 Modeling the Functional Architecture 249
17.6 SysML Modeling Tool Support 250
17.6.1 Create Initial Functional Groups 251
17.6.2 Changing and Adding Functional Groups 254
17.6.3 Creating Functional Blocks and their Interfaces 254
17.7 Mapping of a Functional Architecture to a Physical Architecture 254
17.8 Experiences with the FAS Method 256
17.9 FAS Workshops 258
17.10 Quality Requirements and the Functional Architecture 259
17.11 Functional Architectures and the Zigzag Pattern 262
17.12 CPS-FAS for Cyber-physical Systems 263
18 Product Lines and Variants 269
18.1 Definitions Variant Modeling 270
18.2 Variant Modeling with SysML 271
18.3 Other Variant Modeling Techniques 276
19 Architecture Frameworks 279
19.1 Enterprise Architectures 280
19.2 Characteristics of System of Systems (SoS) 282
19.2.1 Emergence 283
19.3 An Overview of Architecture Frameworks 285
19.3.1 Zachman FrameworkTM 285
19.3.2 The TOGAF® Standard 286
19.3.3 Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF) 288
19.3.4 Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DoDAF) 289
19.3.5 Ministry of Defense Architecture Framework (MODAF) 290
19.3.6 NATO Architecture Framework (NAF) 291
19.3.7 TRAK 292
19.3.8 European Space Agency Architectural Framework (ESA-AF) 293
19.3.9 OMG Unified Architecture Framework® (UAF®) 295
19.4 System Architecture Framework (SAF) 296
Together with Michael Leute 296
19.4.1 SAF and Enterprise Frameworks 296
19.4.2 SAF Ontology 298
19.5 What to Do When We Come in Touch With Architecture Frameworks 298
20 Cross-cutting Concerns 301
20.1 The Game-Winning Nonfunctional Aspects 301
20.2 Human System Interaction and Human Factors Engineering 303
20.3 Risk Management 304
20.4 Trade Studies 305
20.5 Budgets 306
21 Architecture Assessment 307
22 Making It Work in the Organization 313
22.1 Overview 313
22.2 Organizational Structure for Systems Architecting 314
22.3 Recipes from the Authors’ Experience 318
22.3.1 Be Humble 319
22.3.2 Appraise the Stakeholders 319
22.3.3 Care About Organizational Interfaces 319
22.3.4 Show that it Was Always There 321
22.3.5 Lead by Good Example 321
22.3.6 Collect Success Stories and Share them When Appropriate 322
22.3.7 Acknowledge that Infections Beat Dictated Rollout 323
22.3.8 Assign the System Architect Role to Yourself 324
22.3.9 Be a Leader 324
23 Soft Skills 327
23.1 It’s All About Communication 328
23.1.1 Losses in Communication 329
23.1.2 The Anatomy of a Message 330
23.1.3 Factors Influencing Communication 333
23.1.3.1 The Language 333
23.1.3.2 The Media Used 333
23.1.3.3 Spatial Distance 333
23.1.3.4 Various Connotations of Words 335
23.1.4 The Usage of Communication Aids and Tools 335
23.2 Personality Types 338
23.2.1 Psychological Types by C. G. Jung 338
23.2.2 The 4MAT System by Bernice McCarthy 340
23.3 Team Dynamics 341
23.4 Diversity and Psychological Safety 342
23.4.1 Project Aristotle (Google) 342
23.4.2 Elements of Psychological Safety 343
23.5 Intercultural Collaboration Skills 344
24 Outlook: The World After Artificial Intelligence 347
Appendix A OMG Systems Modeling Language 349
A.1 Architecture of the Language 350
A.2 Diagram and Model 352
A.3 Structure Diagrams 353
A.3.1 Block Definition Diagram 354
A.3.2 Internal Block Diagram 357
A.3.3 Parametric Diagram 361
A.3.4 Package Diagram 362
A.4 Behavior Diagrams 363
A.4.1 Use Case Diagram 364
A.4.2 Activity Diagram 366
A.4.3 State Machine Diagram 369
A.4.4 Sequence Diagram 371
A.5 Requirements Diagram 372
A.6 Extension of SysML with Profiles 374
A.7 Next-Generation Modeling Language SysML v2 376
Appendix B The V-Model 381
B.1 A Brief History of the V-Model or the Systems Engineering Vee 381
B.2 A Handy Illustration but No Comprehensive Process Description 383
B.3 Critical Considerations 385
B.3.1 The V-Model as Process Description 386
B.3.2 The V-Model Does Not Impose a Waterfall Process 386
B.3.3 The V-Model Accommodates Iterations 387
B.3.4 The V-Model Permits Incremental Development 387
B.3.5 The V-Model and Concurrent Engineering 388
B.3.6 The V-Model Accommodates Change 388
B.3.7 The V-Model Permits Early Verification Planning 388
B.3.8 The V-Model Shows Where to Prevent Dissatisfaction 388
B.4 Reading Instruction for a Modern Systems Engineering Vee 389
B.4.1 The Vertical Dimension 389
B.4.2 The Horizontal Dimension 389
B.4.3 The Left Side 389
B.4.4 The Right Side 390
B.4.5 The Levels 390
B.4.6 Life Cycle Processes 390
B.4.7 The Third Dimension 390
Appendix C Glossary 391
C.1 Heritage of the Term “Glossary” 391
C.2 Terms with Specific Meaning 393
References 399
Index 417
