Fluoride Toxicity in Animals

1.Introduction.- 1.1 Fluorine chemistry.- 1.1.1 Physical and chemical properties.- 1.1.2 Distribution of fluorine compounds.- 1.2 Essentiality versus toxicity.- 1.2.1 Is fluorine is an essential for health?.- 1.2.2 Fluorine is medicine or poison?.- 1.3 Fluoride toxicity: Historical perspective and current scenario.- 1.3.1 Fluorosis in human population.- 1.3.2 Fluorosis in animals.- 2. Sources of fluoride toxicity.- 2.1 Natural sources.- 2.1.1 Water.- 2.1.2 Volcanic eruption.- 2.1.3 Soil, feed and fodder.- 2.2 Anthropogenic sources.- 2.2.1 Agrochemicals.- 2.2.2 Industrial emission.- 2.2.3 Poor quality phosphate supplements.- 3. Fluoride kinetics and metabolism.- 3.1 Absorption.- 3.1.1 Gastrointestinal tract.- 3.1.2 Respiratory tract.- 3.1.3 Cutaneous and other routes.- 3.2 Distribution and retention.- 3.2.1 Blood and other body fluids.- 3.2.2 Soft tissues.- 3.2.3 Calcified tissues.- 3.2.4 Transplacental transfer.- 3.3 Excretion and elimination.- 3.3.1 Renal excretion.- 3.3.2 Excretion in milk, sweat, saliva and other body fluids.- 3.3.2 Faecal elimination.- 4. Toxic effects and clinical symptoms of fluoride intoxication.- 4.1 Acute toxicity.- 4.2 Chronic toxicity.- 4.2.1 General health effects.- 4.2.2 Osteofluorosis.- 4.2.3 Dental fluorosis.- 4.2.4 Effect on visceral organs.- 4.2.5 Reproductive toxicity.- 4.2.6 Immunotoxicity.- 4.2.7 Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity.- 4.2.8 Neurotoxicity.- 4.2.9 Other toxic effects.- 5. Fluoride tolerance.- 5.1 Tolerance of different animal species.- 5.1.1 Laboratory animals.- 5.1.2 Domestic animals.- 5.1.3 Wild and aquatic animals.- 5.2 Factors affecting fluoride tolerance.- 5.2.1 Animal factors.- 5.2.2 Nutrition.- 5.2.3 Chemical form of fluoride.- 5.2.4 Dose and duration of exposure.- 5.2.5 Environmental and other factors.- 6. Fluoride analysis.- 6.1 Methods of fluoride estimation.- 6.2 Sample collection and preservation.- 6.3 Fluoride in aqueous samples.- 6.4 Fluoride in calcified tissues.- 6.5 Fluoride in soft tissues.- 6.6 Fluoride in soil, feed, fodder and mineral mixture.- 7. Mitigation and prevention of animal fluorosis.- 7.1 Mitigation of clinical symptoms.- 7.2 Minimizing fluoride intake.- 7.2.1 Search for safe source.- 7.2.2 Water defluoridation.- 7.2.3 Defluoridation of phosphate supplements.- 7.2.4 Rainwater harvesting.- 7.3 Reducing absorption and/ or enhancing fluoride excretion.- 7.3.1 Chemical and herbal antidotes.- 7.3.2 Dietary interventions.- 7.4 Minimizing industrial emission.