Drinking Behavior

1 Functional Anatomy of the Tongue and Mouth of Mammals.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Receptors.- 2.1. Superficial Receptors.- 2.1.1. Chemoreceptors.- 2.1.2. Oral Thermoreceptors and Mechanoreceptors.- 2.2. Deep Receptors.- 2.2.1. Tongue.- 2.2.2. Jaws.- 2.3. Areas of the Central Nervous System Receiving Oral Afferent Input.- 2.3.1. Taste.- 2.3.2. Nongustatory Mouth and Jaw Inputs.- 3. Motor Input.- 3.1. Muscular Apparatus.- 3.1.1. Tongue.- 3.1.2. Jaws.- 3.2. Neural Control.- 3.2.1. Tongue.- 3.2.2. Jaws.- 3.2.3. Hypobranchial Muscles.- 4. Drinking Behavior.- 4.1. Licking.- 4.1.1. Detailed Properties of Licking.- 4.1.2. General Characteristics of Licking.- 4.2. Sucking.- 4.3. Swallowing.- References.- 2 The Recording of Licking Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. What Current Level Is Acceptable in the Sensing of Licking Behavior?.- 2.1. The Rat Considered as a Resistor in the Input Circuit of a Contact Sensor.- 2.2. Capacitance of the Input Circuit of the Lick Sensor.- 3. The Technique of Recording Licking Behavior.- 3.1. Recording the Lick Response.- 3.2. Measuring Time Spent Licking.- 4. Lick Sensors.- 4.1. Commercially Available Sensors.- 4.2. Lick Sensors That Were Used for the Study of Current-Licking Behavior.- 4.3. Lick Sensors That Do Not Require the Passage of an Electric Current through the Animal.- 4.3.1. Photo Lick Sensors.- 4.3.2. Lick Sensors Employing a Phonograph Cartridge.- 4.3.3. Pressure-Sensitive Lick Sensor.- 5. Conclusion.- References.- 3 Classical and Instrumental Conditioning of Licking: A Review of Methodology and Data.- 1. Introduction and Overview.- 2. Methods of Detecting and Reinforcing the Lick Response.- 2.1. Techniques of Measurement.- 2.1.1. Electrical Detection.- 2.1.2. Acoustic Detection.- 2.1.3. Photodetection.- 2.1.4. Licking-Evoked Potentials.- 2.2. Reinforcing Techniques.- 2.2.1. The Cup.- 2.2.2. The Waterspout.- 2.2.3. Needle Dispensers.- 2.2.4. Drop Dispensers.- 2.2.5. Intra- and Perioral Dispensers.- 3. Classical and Instrumental Conditioning of Licking Behavior.- 3.1. Respondent Aspects.- 3.1.1. Properties of the Unconditional Stimulus.- 3.1.2. The Unconditional Response.- 3.1.3. Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery of Conditional Licking Responses.- 3.2. Instrumental Conditioning of the Licking Response.- 3.2.1. The Undiscriminated versus the Discriminated Operant.- 3.2.2. Control of Licking by Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement.- 3.2.3. Discriminative-Stimulus Control of Licking.- 4. A Controversy: The Doctrine of Invariance.- 5. Suggestions for Development and Research.- 5.1. Instrumentation and Measurement.- 5.1.1. Standardization versus Specification.- 5.1.2. Perfection of Measures of Lick Detection.- 5.2. Unresolved Issues.- 6. Summary.- References.- 4 Airlicking and Cold Licking in Rodents.- 1. Airlicking.- 1.1. Measurement Problems.- 1.2. Ontogeny.- 1.3. Acquisition.- 1.4. Organismic Determinants.- 1.4.1. Deprivation State.- 1.4.2. Food Deprivation: Schedule-Induced Airlicking.- 1.4.3. Desalivation.- 1.4.4. Lingual Denervation.- 1.4.5. Hypothalamic Stimulation.- 1.4.6. Hypothalamic Lesions.- 1.4.7. Hypothalamic Cooling.- 1.4.8. Comparative Aspects.- 1.5. Airstream Parameters.- 1.5.1. Airstream Pressure.- 1.5.2. Puff Duration.- 1.5.3. Airstream Temperature and Humidity.- 1.5.4. Airstream Accessibility.- 1.6. Electrophysiology.- 1.7. Satiating Effects.- 1.8. Reinforcing Effects.- 2. Cold Licking.- 2.1. Schedule-Induced Cold Licking.- 2.2. Stimulation-Induced Cold Licking.- 3. Conclusions.- References.- 5 Current Licking: Lick-Contingent Electrical Stimulation of the Tongue.- 1. Current Licking: Some Basic Aspects of the Phenomenon.- 1.1. Reinforcing Effects of Peripheral Electrical Stimulation.- 1.2. The Study of Current-Licking Behavior: General Information.- 1.2.1. Recording Licking Behavior.- 1.2.2. Test Chamber.- 1.2.3. Water-Deprivation Schedule.- 1.2.4. Standard Training.- 1.2.5. Subjects.- 1.3. Dependence of Current-Licking Behavior on Experience with Water plus Current.- 1.3.1. Single-Stimulus Condition.- 1.3.2. Two-Choice Condition.- 1.4. Dependence of Current-Licking Behavior on Dipsogenic Conditions.- 1.4.1. Influence of the Duration of Water Deprivation.- 1.4.2. Effects of Other Dipsogenic Conditions.- 1.5. Current-Licking Behavior after Food Deprivation?.- 1.6. Lick-Contingent Electrical Stimulation of Only the Tongue.- 2. Influence of Stimulus Parameters on Current-Licking Performance.- 2.1. The Type of Current.- 2.1.1. Preference Studies Employing Anodal or Cathodal Stimulation of the Tongue.- 2.1.2. Lick-Contingent Tongue Stimulation with Alternating Current.- 2.2. Current Intensity during Training and Subsequent Current-Licking Behavior.- 2.2.1. Training with Water plus 12.5 ?A.- 2.2.2. Training with Water plus 12.5 ?A, 50 ?A, or 200 ?A.- 2.3. Intensity of Stimulation and Current-Licking Performance.- 2.3.1 The Threshold for the Reinforcing Effect of Lick-Contingent Electrical Stimulation of the Tongue.- 2.3.2. The Range of Current Intensities That Can Have Reinforcing Properties.- 2.4. Varying the Duration of Stimulation per Lick.- 2.5. Ambient Light Level and Current-Licking Behavior.- 3. Nature of the Reinforcing Effects of Electrical Tongue Stimulation.- 3.1. Electrical Stimulation of the Anterior Tongue.- 3.1.1. Sensory Effects.- 3.1.2. Motor Effects.- 3.1.3. Secretory Effects.- 3.2. Effects of Nerve Lesions on Current-Licking Behavior.- 3.2.1. Chorda Tympani Nerve Lesions.- 3.2.2. Transection of the Trigeminal Portion of the Lingual Nerve.- 3.3. Current-Licking Behavior in Desalivated Rats.- 3.4. Relative-Reinforcing Attribute of Electrical Tongue Stimulation.- 3.4.1. Water Compared with Electrical Tongue Stimulation.- 3.4.2. Water Compared with Water plus Current.- 3.4.3. Airlicking Compared with Current Licking.- 3.4.4. Airlicking Compared with Licking Air plus Current.- 3.5. Reinforcing New Behavior with Electrical Stimulation of the Tongue.- 3.6. Current Licking Maintained by Primary or Conditioned Reinforcement?.- 3.6.1. Sensory Reinforcement.- 3.6.2. Evidence in Favor of a Conditioned-Reinforcer Interpretation of Current Licking.- 3.6.3. Challenge to the Conditioned-Reinforcement Interpretation.- 4. Summary.- References.- 6 Temperature of Ingested Fluids: Preference and Satiation Effects (Pease Porridge Warm, Pease Porridge Cool).- 1. Introduction.- 2. Origins.- 3. Ponds, Puddles, and Dew Drops.- 4. Sexual, Developmental, and Interspecific Considerations.- 5. Time Course of Water Intake.- 6. Time to Drink.- 6.1. Intakes on Restricted Schedules.- 6.2. Ad Libitum (24-hr) Intakes.- 6.3. Prior Exposure.- 7. Thirst-Dependent Preferences.- 8. Mechanisms.- 8.1. Reflex Volemic Satiety.- 8.2. Stomach Stretch.- 8.3. Hedonism.- 9. Fluids Other Than Water.- 10. Osmotic, Volemic, or Gastric?.- 11. Pagophagia.- 12. Thermoregulation and Water Temperature.- 13. Thermogenic Drinking.- 14. Prandial versus Nonprandial Drinking.- 15. Schedule-Induced Drinking.- 16. Intake by Sated Animals.- 17. Speculation.- 18. Summary.- References.- 7 Taste Modulation of Fluid Intake.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Methods in the Study of Taste Modulation.- 3. Taste and the Peripheral Control of Ingestion.- 3.1. The Response to the Salt Taste.- 3.1.1. Preference-Aversion Drinking.- 3.1.2. The Internal Environment.- 3.1.3. The Oral Environment.- 3.2. The Response to the Sweet Taste.- 3.2.1. Preference-Aversion Drinking.- 3.2.2. Food or Fluid?.- 3.2.3. The Nature of Oral-Systemic Interaction.- 3.3. The Response to Noxious Tastes.- 4. Central Control of Preference and Aversion.- 4.1. Salt Solutions.- 4.2. Sweet Solutions.- 4.3. Noxious Solutions.- 5. Retrospect and Prospects.- References.- 8 Water Taste in Mammals.- 1. Early Beliefs about the Intrinsic Taste of Water.- 2. The "Water" Fiber of Zotterman and His Colleagues.- 3. The Contingent-Water-Taste View.- 3.1. The Taste of Water to Man Is Contingent on the Substance Preceding the Water.- 3.2. Electrophysiological Responses to Water Are Also Contingent on the Substance Preceding the Water.- 4. Water Responses Contingent on Saliva.- 4.1. Man.- 4.2. Cat.- 4.3. Rat.- 5. Implications for Research: How to Control for Water Tastes.- 6. Summary.- References.- 9 Schedule-Induced Polydipsia: The Role of Orolingual Factors and a New Hypothesis.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Schedule-Induced Polydipsia (SIP).- 1.2. The Dry-Mouth Theory.- 1.3. Synopsis and Orientation.- 2. The General Characteristics of SIP.- 2.1. Food Deprivation and Hunger.- 2.2. Type of Reinforcement Schedule.- 2.3. The Degree of Reinforcement Intermittency.- 2.4. The Temporal Locus of Drinking.- 2.5. Drinking as Reinforcement during Intermittent Food Reinforcement.- 2.6. Species Generality.- 2.7. Acquisition.- 3. Is SIP Controlled by Sensory Feedback Associated with Water Ingestion?.- 4. The Effects of Surgical Intervention.- 4.1 Desalivation.- 4.2. Denervation of the Tongue.- 5. The Effects of Fluid Properties on SIP.- 5.1. Temperature.- 5.2. Saline.- 5.3. Saccharin.- 5.4. Ethanol, Acetone, Quinine, and Conditioned Taste Aversions.- 6. What Will Sustain Schedule-Induced Licking Behavior Other Than Fluids?.- 6.1. Empty Metal Drinking Tubes.- 6.2. Cold Metal Objects.- 6.3. Streams of Air.- 7. Effects of Alterations in or Elimination of the Orolingual Consequences of Feeding.- 7.1. Sweetened Dry-Food Pellets.- 7.2. Liquid Food.- 7.3. Is Food Essential?.- 7.3.1. Can Conditioned Stimuli Substitute for Food?.- 7.3.2. Can Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Substitute for Food?.- 8. A Theoretical Proposal.- 8.1. Can Orolingual Factors Fully Account for SIP?.- 8.2. Precedents for Our Theoretical Position.- 8.3. Is SIP an Insulin-Dependent Phenomenon?.- 9. Summary and Conclusions.- References.