Collagen : Structure and Mechanics

Structure and Mechanics

By: Peter Fratzl (Editor)

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Hardcover | 1 May 2008

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528 Pages

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23.39 x 15.6 x 2.87

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Collagen: Structure and Mechanics provides a cohesive introduction to this biological macromolecule and its many applications in biomaterials and tissue engineering.

Graduate students and postdoctoral researchers in the fields of materials, (bio-)engineering, physics, chemistry and biology will gain an understanding of the structure and mechanical behavior of type I collagen and collagen-based tissues in vertebrates, across all length scales from the molecular (nano) to the organ (macro) level. Written in a clear and didactic manner, this volume includes current knowledge on the hierarchical structure, mechanical properties, in addition to a review of deformation and strengthening mechanisms.

Collagen: Structure and Mechanics is an excellent reference for new researchers entering this area and serves as a basis for lecturing in the interdisciplinary field of biological materials science.

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Collagen: Structure and Mechanics, an Introduction	p. 1
Collagen-Based Tissues	p. 1
Basic Mechanical Parameters	p. 4
Stress and Strain	p. 4
Elastic and Viscoelastic Behavior	p. 5
Stiffness, Strength and Toughness	p. 7
Mechanical Properties of Collagen-Based Tissues	p. 9
Hierarchical Structure of Collagen-Based Tissues	p. 10
References	p. 12
Collagen Diversity, Synthesis and Assembly	p. 15
Introduction	p. 15
Fibrillar Collagens	p. 16
Non-fibrillar Collagens	p. 19
Basement Membraneand Associated Collagens	p. 19
Collagen VI	p. 20
Collagens VIII and X	p. 21
FACITs	p. 21
Other Collagensand Collagen-Like Proteins	p. 22
Collagen Biosynthesis	p. 22
Post-translational Modifications of Polypeptide Chains	p. 23
Chain Associationand Triple-Helix Formation	p. 26
Intracellular Transportand Secretion	p. 28
Procollagen Processing	p. 29
Covalent Cross-Linking	p. 30
Assembly of Fibrillar Collagens	p. 31
Reconstitution of Fibrils In Vitro	p. 31
Fibril Formation De Novofrom Procollagen	p. 33
Heterotypic Fibril Assembly	p. 34
Interactions with Proteoglycans and Other Componentsof theExtracellular Matrix	p. 35
Cell Interactions and Long-Range Order	p. 38
Assemblyof Collagen-Like Peptides	p. 39
Conclusions	p. 41
References	p. 41
Collagen Fibrillar Structure and Hierarchies	p. 49
Introduction and Background	p. 50
The Fibril-Forming Collagens	p. 51
Molecular Composition of Type I Collagen-Rich Fibrillar Structures	p. 52
Molecular Composition of Type II Collagen-Rich Fibrillar Structures	p. 53
Collagen Molecular Packing in Fibrils	p. 53
Lateral Packing and Molecular Connectivities	p. 58
Evidence of Subfibrillar Structures	p. 59
Orderand Disorderinthe Collagen Fibril	p. 60
Partitionof Structureinthe Collagen Fibril	p. 60
Molecular Kinking	p. 62
The Fibril Surfaceand Interface Properties	p. 63
Factors Involvedin Fibril Growthand Size	p. 67
Distributionof Fibril Diameterand Length	p. 68
Suprafibrillar Architectures	p. 70
Relationships with Mechanical Properties of Collagen-Rich Tissues	p. 72
References	p. 74
Restraining Cross-Links Responsible for the Mechanical Properties of Collagen Fibers: Natural and Artificial	p. 81
Introduction	p. 82
Enzyme Cross-Linking(Lysyl Oxidase)	p. 83
Immature Tissues	p. 83
Mature Tissues	p. 84
Changing Cross-Link Profiles of Different Tissues	p. 87
Importance of Lysine Hydroxylation	p. 89
Cross-Linking and Tissue Adaptation to Mechanical Force	p. 90
Determinationofthe Cross-Links	p. 90
Non-enzymic Cross-Linking(Glycation)	p. 91
Unusual Cross-Linking Mechanisms in Native Collagen	p. 96
Stabilization by Chemical Cross-Linking for Bioengineering Tissues	p. 99
Mechanisms of Some Common Chemical Cross-Link Reactions	p. 100
Location of Enzymic, Glycation and Chemical Cross-Links	p. 103
Mechanism of Increased Denaturation Temperature by Cross-Linking	p. 104
Future Prospects	p. 105
References	p. 105
Damage and Fatigue	p. 111
Introduction	p. 111
Cracks	p. 113
The Griffith Crack: Material Resistance, Energy Release Rateand Stress Intensity Factor	p. 113
Tough Materials	p. 117
The -Curve	p. 118
The J-Integral	p. 119
Fatigue Cracks	p. 119
Creep and Fatigue in Tendon and Bone	p. 121
Creep	p. 121
Time-to-Ruptureasa Functionof Stress	p. 122
Cyclic Loads Compared to a Constant Load: Times-to-Rupture	p. 123
Crack Stopping in Bone and Tendon	p. 125
Bone	p. 125
Tendon	p. 126
Biological Aspects: Evolution,Growthand Adaptation	p. 127
Tendons	p. 127
Bones	p. 128
Other Materials	p. 128
Generalizations	p. 129
References	p. 129
Viscoelasticity, Energy Storage and Transmission and Dissipation by Extracellular Matrices in Vertebrates	p. 133
Introduction	p. 133
Concept of Energy Storage, Transmission and Dissipation	p. 134
Molecular Basis of Energy Storage and Dissipation	p. 136
Viscoelastic Behavior of Tendon	p. 139
Viscoelasticity of Self-Assembled Type I Collagen Fibers	p. 140
Viscoelasticity of Skin	p. 140
Viscoelastic Behavior of Cartilage	p. 142
Viscoelastic Behavior of Vessel Wall	p. 143
Determination of Elastic and Viscous Properties of Mineralized Tendon and Type I Collagen	p. 143
Effects of Strain Rate and Cyclic Loading	p. 144
Concept of Mechanochemical Transduction and Changes in Tissue Metabolismand Aging	p. 145
Relationship Between Viscoelasticity and Hierarchical Structure	p. 147
Aligned Collagen Networks and Mechanical Models of Tendon	p. 148
Mechanical Models of Orientable ECMs	p. 150
Mechanical Models of ECMs Comprised Onlyof Collagen Fibers	p. 150
Mechanical Models of Composite ECMs Containing More Than Collagen Fibers	p. 151
Conclusions	p. 152
References	p. 153
Nanoscale Deformation Mechanisms in Collagen	p. 155
Introduction	p. 155
Deformation at the Fiber Bundle Level	p. 156
Fibrillar and Molecular Deformation Mechanisms	p. 158
Mineralized Collagen Deformation	p. 165
Conclusion	p. 169
References	p. 170
Hierarchical Nanomechanics of Collagen Fibrils: Atomistic and Molecular Modeling	p. 175
Introduction	p. 175
Deformation and Fracture: An Introduction	p. 177
Collagen Structure - From Atoms to Tissue	p. 178
Outline of This Chapter	p. 180
Numerical Simulation Techniques and Theoretical Framework	p. 180
Multi-scale Modeling of Deformation and Failure	p. 181
Basicsof Atomistic Modeling	p. 182
Large-Scale Parallelized Computing	p. 183
Analysisand Visualization	p. 184
Complementary Experimental Methods	p. 185
Summary	p. 185
Deformation and Fracture of Single Tropocollagen Molecules	p. 185
Atomistic Model	p. 186
Tensileand Compressive Loading	p. 190
Bending a Single Tropocollagen Molecule	p. 195
Shearing Two Tropocollagen Molecules	p. 196
Developmentof a Mesoscopic, Molecular Model	p. 197
Validation of Mesoscale Model in Tensile Deformation	p. 202
Stretching an Ultra-long Tropocollagen Molecule: Mesoscale Modeling	p. 202
Discussionand Conclusion	p. 203
Deformationand Fracture of Collagen Fibrils	p. 205
Model Geometryand Molecular Simulation Approach	p. 205
Size-Dependent Properties: Effects of Molecular Length	p. 206
Effect of Cross-Link Densities	p. 214
Nanomechanics of Mineralized Collagen Fibrils: Molecular Mechanicsof Nascent Bone	p. 221
Introduction	p. 222
Molecular Model	p. 224
Computational Results: Elastic, Plastic Regime and Fracture	p. 225
Discussion	p. 230
Conclusion	p. 232
Structure-Property Relationships in Biological Protein Materials	p. 233
Cross-Scale Interactions: Fracture Mechanisms in Collagenous Tissue	p. 234
The Significance of Hierarchical Features	p. 237
Universality Versus Diversity	p. 237
Discussionand Conclusion	p. 239
References	p. 240
Mechanical Adaptation and Tissue Remodeling	p. 249
Introduction	p. 249
Collagen Adaptation to Loading - Biochemical Approaches	p. 250
Dynamics of Collagen Metabolism in Human Tendon and Skeletal Musclewith Mechanical Loading	p. 250
Regulatory Factors for Collagen Adaptation to Exercise	p. 252
Interplay Between Collagen-Rich Matrix and Contracting Skeletal Muscle	p. 254
Role for Stem Cells in Tendon Adaptation and Healing	p. 255
Mechanical Properties of Human Tendon, In Vivo	p. 256
Tendon Hypertrophy	p. 256
Regional Differencesin Cross-Sectional Area	p. 257
The Ultrasonography Method	p. 258
Human Aponeurosis Shear, In Vivo	p. 258
Mechanical Properties of Individual Human Tendon Fascicles	p. 260
Force Transmission Between Human Tendon Fascicles	p. 261
References	p. 263
Tendons and Ligaments: Structure, Mechanical Behavior and Biological Function	p. 269
Introduction	p. 270
Tendon-Ligament Force Transmission and Weight Savings	p. 271
Tendon and Ligament Compliance, Resilience and Functional Stress Limits	p. 275
Tendon Elastic Energy Savings During Locomotion	p. 280
Role of Tendon Elasticity in Jumping and Acceleration	p. 281
References	p. 282
Collagen in Arterial Walls: Biomechanical Aspects	p. 285
Introduction	p. 285
Structureofthe Arterial Wall	p. 286
Intima	p. 287
Media	p. 288
Adventitia	p. 289
Typical Biomechanical Behavior of the Arterial Wall	p. 290
Layer-Specific Mechanical Properties of Human Arteries	p. 292
Structural Quantification of Collagen Fibers in Arterial Walls	p. 296
Polarized Light Microscopy	p. 296
Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering	p. 298
Computer Vision Analysis	p. 300
Models for the Elastic Response of Arterial Walls	p. 302
The Basic Building Block for a Structural Model	p. 302
A Structural Modelfor Arterial Layers	p. 304
Arterial Models Considering Fiber Dispersion	p. 306
Collagen Fiber Remodelingin Arterial Walls	p. 311
References	p. 319
The Extracellular Matrix of Skeletal and Cardiac Muscle	p. 325
Introduction	p. 326
General Structure of IMCT	p. 327
Striated Muscle: Gross Morphology of Intramuscular Connective Tissue	p. 327
Composition of the Perimysium and Endomysium	p. 331
The Amount, Composition and Architecture of Endomysium and Perimysium Vary Between Different Striated Muscles	p. 332
The Orientation of Collagen Fibers in Perimysium and Endomysium Changes with Muscle Length	p. 334
Mechanical Properties of the Perimysium: Modelsand Measurements	p. 337
Mechanical Properties of the Endomysium: Modelsand Measurements	p. 338
Mechanical Roles In Vivo for Perimysium and Endomysium inStriated Muscles	p. 339
Endomysial Role in Force Transmission	p. 339
My of ascial Force Transmission	p. 342
Perimysium: Coordination of Shape Change on Muscle Contraction	p. 343
Connective Tissue Networks Within Cardiac Muscle	p. 344
The Structure of the Cardiac Wall	p. 344
Structure and Arrangement of ECM Within the Myocardium	p. 346
Mechanical Roles for ECM in the Myocardium	p. 348
Heart Valvesare Special ECM Structures	p. 351
Conclusions	p. 353
References	p. 353
The Cornea and Sclera	p. 359
Introduction	p. 360
Macroscopic Structure	p. 360
Microscopic Structure	p. 361
Nanoscopic Structure	p. 363
Composition of the Corneal Stroma	p. 365
The Basisof Corneal Shape-Collagen Lamella Organization	p. 366
X-ray Scattering Used to Determine Lamellar Organizationinthe Cornea	p. 368
Corneal Biomechanics	p. 373
Corneal Ectasia	p. 376
The Basis of Corneal Transparency - Collagen Fibril Organization	p. 378
Transparencyin the Normal Cornea	p. 378
Light Scatteringin Swollen Corneas	p. 381
Artificial Corneal Constructs	p. 384
The Sclera	p. 387
Scleral Structure	p. 387
Scleral Composition	p. 388
Scleral Biomechanics and the Development of Myopia	p. 389
Conclusion	p. 392
References	p. 393
Collagen and the Mechanical Properties of Bone and Calcified Cartilage	p. 397
Introduction	p. 397
Structure of Bone	p. 397
Mechanical Propertiesof Compact Bone	p. 400
Mechanical Properties of Cancellous (Trabecular) Bone	p. 404
Collagen-Mineral Interactions and the Effect of Different Collagen/Mineral Ratios on the Mechanical Properties of Bone	p. 405
The Effectof Remodelingon Mechanical Properties	p. 411
A Natural Experiment	p. 412
The Effect of Differences of Collagen on Bone's Mechanical Properties	p. 413
Aging	p. 413
Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis	p. 414
Osteogenesis Imperfecta	p. 414
Calcified Cartilage	p. 415
References	p. 417
Dentin	p. 421
Introduction	p. 421
Composition and Main Features	p. 423
Functionsof Dentin	p. 423
Dentinasa Material	p. 428
Average Materials Propertiesof Dentin	p. 429
Variation of Properties as a Design Concept - Elastic Properties	p. 430
Anisotropic Failure Properties	p. 432
Dentin Microstructureasthe Basisfor Mechanical Properties	p. 434
Root Dentin	p. 435
Crown Dentin	p. 436
Variations of """"Normal"""" Dentin Structure	p. 438
""""Abnormal"""" Forms of Dentin	p. 439
Conclusion	p. 441
References	p. 442
Genetic Collagen Diseases: Influence of Collagen Mutations on Structure and Mechanical Behavior	p. 447
Introduction	p. 447
Osteogenesis Imperfecta	p. 448
General Description - OI Types	p. 448
Genotype/Phenotype	p. 448
OI Phenocopiesin Miceand Men	p. 458
Other Fibrillar Collagen Mutations that Affect Tissue Structure and Mechanical Behavior	p. 461
Discussion	p. 463
Conclusion	p. 464
References	p. 464
Biomimetic Collagen Tissues: Collagenous Tissue Engineering and Other Applications	p. 475
Introduction	p. 475
Synthesisand Cultureof Collagen Gels	p. 476
Collagen Self-Assemblyin Solution	p. 476
FPCL/Tissue Equivalent(TE)	p. 476
Entrapmentof Cells/Compaction	p. 477
Generationof Fiber Alignment	p. 479
Free Floatingor Constrained	p. 479
Collagenand Cell Concentration	p. 480
Matrix Synthesisand Cross-Link Formation	p. 481
Conclusions	p. 482
Mechanical Propertiesof Collagen Gelsand TEs	p. 482
Shear	p. 483
Extension	p. 485
Compression	p. 488
Effect of Gelation Conditions on Properties of Gels	p. 489
Conclusions	p. 489
Applications	p. 489
Control of TE Properties	p. 490
Boundary Conditions - Free Surfaces and Mechanical Constraints	p. 491
Mechanical Stimulation for Improved Alignment and Matrix Composition	p. 493
Medium Additivesfor Improved TE Properties	p. 495
Limitationsand Future Directions	p. 496
References	p. 496
Index	p. 505
Table of Contents provided by Publisher. All Rights Reserved.

Collagen : Structure and Mechanics

Structure and Mechanics

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Hardcover

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