What is Morphology?

Preface viii

Acknowledgments xiii

Abbreviations xiv

Remarks on Transcription xvii

The International Phonetic Alphabet xix

About the Companion Website xx

1 Thinking about Morphology and Morphological Analysis 1

1.1 What is Morphology? 1

1.2 Morphemes 2

1.3 Morphology in Action 4

1.4 Background and Beliefs 9

1.5 Introduction to Morphological Analysis 11

1.6 Summary 20

Introduction to Kujamaat Joola 22

2 Words and Lexemes 32

2.1 What is a Word? 33

2.2 Empirical Tests for Wordhood 36

2.3 Types of Words 38

2.4 Inflection vs. Derivation 45

2.5 Two Approaches to Morphology: Item-and-Arrangement, Item-and-Process 47

2.6 The Lexicon 52

2.7 Summary 54

Kujamaat Joola Noun Classes 55

3 Morphology and Phonology 69

3.1 Allomorphs 70

3.2 Prosodic Morphology 74

3.3 Primary and Secondary Affixes 77

3.4 Linguistic Exaptation, Leveling, and Analogy 81

3.5 Morphophonology and Secret Languages 87

3.6 Summary 89

Kujamaat Joola Morphophonology 91

4 Derivation and the Lexicon 103

4.1 The Saussurean Sign 103

4.2 Motivation and Compositionality 104

4.3 Derivation and Structure 116

4.4 Lexicalization 122

4.5 Summary 125

Derivation in Kujamaat Joola 126

5 Derivation and Semantics 131

5.1 The Polysemy Problem 132

5.2 The Semantics of Derived Lexemes 134

5.3 Summary 141

Derivation and Verbs in Kujamaat Joola 142

6 Inflection 150

6.1 What is Inflection? 152

6.2 Inflection vs. Derivation 160

6.3 Inventory of Inflectional Morphology Types 163

6.4 Syncretism 170

6.5 Typology 171

6.6 Summary 173

Agreement in Kujamaat Joola 174

7 Morphology and Syntax 187

7.1 Morphological vs. Syntactic Inflection 188

7.2 Structural Constraints on Morphological Inflection 189

7.3 Inflection and Universal Grammar 191

7.4 Grammatical Function Change 193

7.5 Summary 200

Kujamaat Joola Verb Morphology 201

8 Morphological Productivity and the Mental Lexicon 217

8.1 What is Morphological Productivity? 218

8.2 Productivity and Structure: Negative Prefixes in English 220

8.3 Degrees of Productivity 221

8.4 Salience and Productivity 226

8.5 Testing Productivity 228

8.6 The Mental Lexicon, Psycholinguistics, and Neurolinguistics 235

8.7 Conclusion 240

9 Computational Morphology 246

9.1 Introduction 247

9.2 Early Work 247

9.3 Problem Specification 249

9.4 Knowledge-based Methods 252

9.5 Data-Driven Methods 260

9.6 Hybrid Models 266

9.7 Resources for Computational Morphology 267

Acknowledgments 268

Further Reading 269

Exercises 270

Glossary 274

References 289

Index 299