| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Why Systems Thinking? | p. 1 |
| The Systems Tradition | p. 2 |
| The Aim of the Book | p. 4 |
| Why Read This Book? | p. 4 |
| Overviews | |
| Orientation and Structure | p. 11 |
| Introduction | p. 11 |
| Methodology, Methods, and Meta-Methodology | p. 11 |
| Methodology, Theory, and Practice | p. 12 |
| Types of Research | p. 12 |
| Action Research | p. 14 |
| Social Science and Systems Thinking | p. 15 |
| The Structure of Part I | p. 16 |
| System, Systems Thinking and the Structure of Parts II and III | p. 17 |
| Conclusion and the Structure of the Argument | p. 20 |
| Relevant Social Theory | p. 21 |
| Introduction | p. 21 |
| Sociological Paradigms | p. 22 |
| Metaphors of Organization | p. 26 |
| Critical Theory and Habermas | p. 30 |
| Modernism Versus Postmodernism | p. 34 |
| Conclusion | p. 41 |
| Origins in the Disciplines | p. 43 |
| Introduction | p. 43 |
| Philosophy | p. 44 |
| Biology | p. 46 |
| General System Theory | p. 50 |
| Sociology | p. 54 |
| Management and Organization Theory | p. 62 |
| Control Engineering and Cybernetics | p. 67 |
| The Black Box Technique | p. 69 |
| Negative Feedback | p. 70 |
| Variety Engineering | p. 72 |
| The Physical Sciences and Toward Synthesis | p. 75 |
| Chaos and Complexity Theory | p. 81 |
| Conclusion | p. 88 |
| Applied Systems Thinking | p. 91 |
| Introduction | p. 91 |
| The Systems Movement | p. 91 |
| The Development of Applied Systems Thinking | p. 94 |
| Systems Thinking as a Transdiscipline | p. 99 |
| The Status of Applied Systems Thinking | p. 101 |
| Systems Approaches | |
| The Functionalist Systems Approach | p. 107 |
| Introduction | p. 107 |
| Organizations as Systems | p. 108 |
| Barnard's Systems Thinking | p. 108 |
| Contingency Theory | p. 109 |
| Socio-technical Systems Theory | p. 117 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of 'Organizations-as-Systems' | p. 125 |
| Hard Systems Thinking | p. 127 |
| Operational Research | p. 128 |
| Systems Analysis | p. 130 |
| Systems Engineering | p. 134 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Hard Systems Thinking | p. 135 |
| System Dynamics | p. 138 |
| System Dynamics Models | p. 139 |
| System Dynamics Methodology | p. 142 |
| Case Study - An Accident and Emergency Department | p. 145 |
| Senge's Fifth Discipline | p. 147 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of System Dynamics | p. 153 |
| Organizational Cybernetics | p. 155 |
| Beer's Viable System Model | p. 157 |
| Using the Viable System Model for Diagnosis and Design | p. 163 |
| Case Study - Humberside Window Systems Ltd | p. 166 |
| Organizational Cybernetics - Another 'Fifth Discipline'? | p. 169 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Organizational Cybernetics | p. 172 |
| Living Systems Theory | p. 177 |
| The General Theory | p. 178 |
| The Living Organization | p. 180 |
| Methodology and Living Systems Theory | p. 181 |
| Case Studies of the Application of Living Systems Theory to Organizations | p. 182 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Living Systems Theory | p. 183 |
| Autopoieses | p. 184 |
| Methodology and Application | p. 185 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Autopoiesis | p. 187 |
| Complexity Theory | p. 189 |
| Complexity Theory and Management | p. 190 |
| Methodology and Case Study - Humberside Training and Enterprise Council | p. 196 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Complexity Theory | p. 199 |
| A Generic Functionalist Systems Methodology | p. 202 |
| Critique of the Functionalist Systems Approach | p. 204 |
| The Interpretive Systems Approach | p. 211 |
| Introduction | p. 211 |
| Warfield's Interactive Management | p. 212 |
| The Science of Generic Design | p. 213 |
| The Interactive Management Methodology and Consensus Methods | p. 214 |
| Case Study - Community Council of Humberside | p. 219 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Interactive Management | p. 221 |
| Churchman's Social Systems Design | p. 222 |
| Philosophy and Methodology of Social Systems Design | p. 222 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Systems Design | p. 224 |
| Mason and Mitroff's Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing (SAST) | p. 226 |
| Philosophy and Principles of SAST | p. 226 |
| SAST Methodology | p. 227 |
| Case Study - Thornton Printing Company | p. 229 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of SAST | p. 231 |
| Ackoff's Social Systems Sciences (S[superscript 3]) | p. 232 |
| The Changing Nature of the World and the Need for Interactive Planning | p. 233 |
| Principles and Methodology of Interactive Planning | p. 235 |
| Models Used in Interactive Planning | p. 238 |
| Case Study - A Black Ghetto's Research on a University | p. 241 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Interactive Planning | p. 243 |
| Checkland's Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) | p. 246 |
| Soft Systems Philosophy and Theory | p. 247 |
| Soft Systems Methodology | p. 251 |
| Case Study - Humberside Training and Enterprise Council | p. 260 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Soft Systems Methodology | p. 267 |
| Senge's Soft Systems Thinking | p. 270 |
| Four Other Disciplines of the Learning Organization | p. 270 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Senge's Soft Systems Thinking | p. 272 |
| Soft Operational Research, Soft System Dynamics, Soft Cybernetics | p. 272 |
| Soft Operational Research (OR) | p. 273 |
| Soft System Dynamics | p. 276 |
| Soft Cybernetics | p. 277 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Soft OR, Soft System Dynamics, Soft Cybernetics | p. 279 |
| A Generic Interpretive Systems Methodology | p. 281 |
| Critique of the Interpretive Systems Approach | p. 282 |
| The Emancipatory Systems Approach | p. 291 |
| Introduction | p. 291 |
| Emancipation as Liberation | p. 292 |
| Critical Operational Research/Management Science (OR/MS) | p. 295 |
| Habermas and the Critical Systems Approach | p. 296 |
| Interpretive Systemology | p. 298 |
| Freire's Critical Pedagogy | p. 299 |
| MacIntyre and the Moral Community | p. 301 |
| Capra's Ecological Sustainability | p. 302 |
| Emancipation as Liberation: the Case of Community OR | p. 304 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Emancipation as Liberation | p. 308 |
| Emancipation Through Discursive Rationality | p. 309 |
| Beer's Team Syntegrity | p. 311 |
| Ulrich's Critical Systems Heuristics | p. 315 |
| The Theory and Practice of Boundary Critique | p. 320 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Emancipation Through Discursive Rationality | p. 324 |
| Emancipation Through the Oblique Use of Systems Methods | p. 325 |
| A Generic Emancipatory Systems Methodology | p. 328 |
| Critique of the Emancipatory Systems Approach | p. 330 |
| The Postmodern Systems Approach | p. 333 |
| Introduction | p. 333 |
| Intervention in the Spirit of Postmodernism - Taket and White's "Panda" | p. 335 |
| Postmodern Systems Methods | p. 340 |
| A Generic Framework for the Application of the Postmodern Systems Approach | p. 347 |
| Critique of the Postmodern Systems Approach | p. 347 |
| Critical Systems Thinking | |
| The Origins of Critical Systems Thinking | p. 355 |
| Introduction | p. 355 |
| Critical Awareness | p. 356 |
| The System of Systems Methodologies | p. 357 |
| The Engagement with Emancipation | p. 362 |
| The Argument for Pluralism | p. 364 |
| Total Systems Intervention | p. 368 |
| Philosophy and Principles of Total Systems Intervention | p. 368 |
| Creativity | p. 369 |
| Choice | p. 369 |
| Implementation | p. 370 |
| Strengths and Weaknesses of Total Systems Intervention | p. 371 |
| Conclusion | p. 373 |
| Contemporary Critical Systems Thinking and Practice | p. 375 |
| Introduction | p. 375 |
| Three Commitments of Critical Systems Thinking | p. 375 |
| Towards Coherent Pluralism in Systems Thinking | p. 377 |
| The Nature of Pluralism in Critical Systems Thinking | p. 378 |
| The History of Pluralism in Critical Systems Thinking | p. 380 |
| What do Critical Systems Thinkers want from Pluralism? | p. 382 |
| Critical Systems Practice - Tsi Revisited | p. 387 |
| Constitutive Rules for Critical Systems Practice | p. 392 |
| Conclusion and What More Needs to be Done? | p. 392 |
| Critical Systems Practice: Three Illustrative Case Studies | p. 395 |
| Introduction | p. 395 |
| West Newton Council for Voluntary Service | p. 395 |
| The Organization | p. 395 |
| The Problem Situation and What Was Done | p. 398 |
| Theoretical Reflections | p. 404 |
| North Yorkshire Police | p. 406 |
| The Organization | p. 406 |
| The Problem Situation and What Was Done | p. 407 |
| Theoretical Reflections | p. 412 |
| Kingston Gas Turbines | p. 416 |
| The Organization | p. 416 |
| The Problem Situation and What Was Done | p. 416 |
| Theoretical Reflections | p. 419 |
| Conclusion | p. 423 |
| References | p. 427 |
| Index of Authors | p. 441 |
| Index | p. 445 |
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