| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Why Does 3D GIS Matter? | p. 1 |
| The Needs for 3D GIS | p. 3 |
| The Need for 3D Spatial Data Modeling | p. 7 |
| Problems Associated with Spatial Modelling for 3D GIS | p. 9 |
| Previous Work | p. 10 |
| Background to the 3D GIS Problem | p. 13 |
| An Overview of 3D GIS Development | p. 15 |
| GIS Functions | p. 15 |
| 3D GIS | p. 16 |
| Recent Progress Made on 3D GIS | p. 17 |
| Commercially Available Systems and 3D GIS | p. 18 |
| ArcView 3D Analyst | p. 18 |
| Imagine VirtualGIS | p. 19 |
| GeoMedia Terrain | p. 20 |
| PAMAP GIS Topographer | p. 21 |
| Why is 3D GIS Difficult to Realise? | p. 22 |
| Discussion | p. 23 |
| 2D and 3D Spatial Data Representations | p. 25 |
| Introduction | p. 25 |
| Classes of Object Representations | p. 26 |
| Grid | p. 26 |
| Shape Model | p. 27 |
| Facet Model | p. 28 |
| Boundary Representation (B-rep) | p. 30 |
| 3D Array | p. 32 |
| Octree | p. 33 |
| Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) | p. 34 |
| 3D TIN (Tetrahedral network, TEN) | p. 35 |
| GIS Applicability of the Representations | p. 37 |
| The Selection Criteria | p. 38 |
| Representation of Object Primitives | p. 38 |
| Topology of Spatial Objects: Simplexes and Complexes | p. 40 |
| Vector and Raster Representations | p. 41 |
| Summary | p. 42 |
| The Fundamentals of Geo-Spatial Modelling | p. 43 |
| Spatial Data | p. 44 |
| Spatial Data Modeling | p. 44 |
| Models and Their Importance for Geoinformation | p. 45 |
| Components of Geo-spatial Model | p. 47 |
| Phases in Geo-spatial Modeling | p. 48 |
| Conceptual Design of a Geo-spatial Model | p. 50 |
| Definition of Space | p. 51 |
| Abstraction of Space | p. 52 |
| Abstraction of Real World Object | p. 53 |
| Object and Spatial Extent | p. 57 |
| Spatial Relations | p. 57 |
| Application of Spatial Relations | p. 62 |
| Representation of Spatial Objects and Relationships | p. 65 |
| Spatial Data Models in GIS | p. 73 |
| Logical Design of Geo-spatial Model | p. 78 |
| Relational Approach | p. 79 |
| Object-oriented Approach | p. 81 |
| Summary | p. 85 |
| The Conceptual Design | p. 87 |
| TIN-based (2.5D) Data Model | p. 87 |
| Properties of the TIN-based Data Model | p. 90 |
| TEN-based Data Model | p. 94 |
| Generalized n-dimensional Integrated Data Model | p. 97 |
| The Definitions | p. 98 |
| Single-theme and Multi-theme | p. 101 |
| Euler's Characteristics | p. 102 |
| Euler's Equality | p. 103 |
| The Generalized Euler Equality | p. 104 |
| Discussion | p. 107 |
| The Logical Design | p. 109 |
| Relational Approach | p. 109 |
| Relational Data Structure for TIN-based Model | p. 110 |
| Relational Data Structure for a TEN-based Model | p. 112 |
| Relational Data Structure for an n-dimensional Data Model | p. 115 |
| Object-oriented Approach | p. 116 |
| Object-oriented Definition of a Spatial Object | p. 117 |
| Object-oriented Design Based on IDM | p. 118 |
| Specialization of Classes | p. 120 |
| Aggregation of Objects | p. 125 |
| Creation of Objects | p. 126 |
| Behaviour of Objects in the Database | p. 128 |
| Comparison with Other OO Approaches | p. 129 |
| Discussion | p. 130 |
| Object-Orientation of TINs Spatial Data | p. 133 |
| Introduction | p. 133 |
| Object-oriented Concepts | p. 133 |
| The Abstraction Mechanisms | p. 134 |
| The Programming Language | p. 136 |
| Object-oriented TIN Tessellations | p. 136 |
| Classes for 2D TIN Tessellations | p. 136 |
| Classes for 3D TIN Tessellations | p. 140 |
| Object-oriented TINs Spatial Data Modelling | p. 140 |
| The Classes Schema | p. 140 |
| Object-oriented TIN Spatial Database Development | p. 146 |
| The POET OO DBMS | p. 146 |
| The POET Database Schema | p. 147 |
| The POET Database Browser | p. 148 |
| POET Database Query | p. 148 |
| Object-oriented TIN-based Subsystems for GIS | p. 149 |
| Summary | p. 150 |
| The Supporting Algorithms | p. 153 |
| Introduction | p. 153 |
| Distance Transformation | p. 153 |
| Voronoi Tessellations | p. 158 |
| Triangulations (TINs) | p. 163 |
| TIN Topological Data Structuring | p. 168 |
| Visualization | p. 170 |
| 3D Distance Transformation | p. 171 |
| 3D Voronoi Tessellation | p. 176 |
| Tetrahedron Network (TEN) Generation | p. 181 |
| Constrained Triangulations | p. 183 |
| The Line Rasterization | p. 183 |
| The Construction of the Constrained TINs | p. 185 |
| Contouring Algorithm | p. 190 |
| Data Structures for Contouring | p. 190 |
| The Algorithm | p. 192 |
| The Contour Visualization | p. 195 |
| Algorithms for Irregular Network Formation | p. 196 |
| Summary | p. 204 |
| Applications of the Model | p. 207 |
| Integration of Terrain Relief and Terrain Features | p. 207 |
| Creating an Integrated Database | p. 209 |
| A Spatial Query Example | p. 212 |
| Integrating with 3D Features | p. 214 |
| Integrating with Geo-scientific Data | p. 219 |
| Spatial Operators | p. 221 |
| Graphic Visualization | p. 223 |
| Wireframe Graphics | p. 224 |
| Hidden Line and Surface Removal | p. 225 |
| Surface Shading and Illumination | p. 226 |
| Texture Mapping | p. 227 |
| Virtual Reality | p. 230 |
| Discussion | p. 230 |
| The Web and 3D GIS | p. 233 |
| Introduction | p. 233 |
| Web 3D GIS | p. 234 |
| Management of 3D Spatial Data | p. 238 |
| GUI for 3D Visualization and Editing on the Web | p. 240 |
| Current and Possible Approaches in Urban Planning | p. 248 |
| Realized Browser-based Solutions | p. 249 |
| Stand-alone Solutions/Toolkits/Front-ends | p. 254 |
| Summary | p. 255 |
| Conclusion and Further Outlook | p. 257 |
| Summary | p. 257 |
| Further Research | p. 264 |
| References and Bibliography | p. 267 |
| Index | p. 287 |
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