Solar Power Plants

1 The Energy Heptagon.- 2 Solar Radiation Conversion.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Solar Radiant Flux.- 2.2.1 Modulation Through Revolution and Rotation.- 2.2.2 Beam Radiation on Tilted Surfaces.- 2.2.3 Terrestrial Solar Radiation.- 2.2.4 Beam Radiation and Clouds.- 2.2.5 Diffuse and Global Radiation.- 2.2.6 Spectral Direct and Diffuse Radiation.- 2.3 Thermodynamic Quality of Solar Radiation.- 2.3.1 Measure of Quality.- 2.3.2 Quality of Radiation.- 2.3.3 Standard Spectra.- 2.3.4 Quality of Solar Irradiance.- 2.4 Concentration of Radiation.- 2.5 Conversion to Heat.- 2.5.1 Process Heat and Concentrated Radiation.- 2.5.2 Selective Absorption-Transmission.- 2.5.3 Yield of Process Heat.- 2.5.4 Simultaneous Concentration and Selective Absorption.- 2.6 Conversion of Radiation to Electrical Energy.- 2.6.1 Photoionization.- 2.6.2 Photovoltaics.- 2.6.3 Ideal Photocell.- 2.6.4 Ideal Solar Cell Equation.- 2.6.5 Parameters of Solar Cells.- 2.6.6 Maximum Photovoltaic Efficiencies.- 2.6.7 Spectral Matching of Solar Cell Devices.- 2.6.8 Tandem Solar Cells.- 2.7 Photochemical Conversion.- 2.7.1 Equation of Ideal Photochemical Processes.- 2.7.2 Maximum Yield in Photochemical Processes.- 2.7.3 hv-, eV-, and kT- Reaction Paths.- 2.8 Appendix 1: Measurement of Solar Radiation.- 2.8.1 Introduction.- 2.8.2 Basic Quantities and Instrumentation.- 2.8.3 Detectors, Windows, Filters.- 2.8.4 Description of Instruments.- 2.9 Appendix 2: Frequently Used Symbols.- 3 Concentrator Optics.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Basic Optics.- 3.3 Concentration Optics.- 3.3.1 Concepts of Concentrator Optics.- 3.3.2 Solar and Circumsolar Brightness Distribution - Sunshape.- 3.3.3 The Degraded Sun.- 3.3.4 The Error Function for the Concentrator.- 3.3.5 Flux Density and Concentration.- 3.3.6 Cassegranian Optics.- 3.4 Ideal Concentrators.- 3.4.1 Conceptual Framework.- 3.4.2 Compound Parabolic Concentrator.- 3.4.3 Flow-line or Trumpet Concentrators.- 3.4.4 Conical Flux Density Redirector.- 3.5 Parabolic Geometries.- 3.5.1 General Considerations.- 3.5.2 Geometric Concentration Ratio.- 3.5.3 Local Concentration Ratio: Flux Density Distribution.- 3.5.4 The Iso-Intensity Problem.- 3.6 Other Concentrating Geometries.- 3.6.1 Introduction.- 3.6.2 The Hemispherical Bowl Concentrator.- 3.6.3 The Line Focus Fixed Mirror Collector.- 3.6.4 Tracking Facet Distributed Receiver Systems.- 3.6.5 Fresnel Reflectors.- 3.6.6 Fresnel Lenses.- 3.6.7 Other Optical Configurations.- 3.7 Central Receivers.- 3.7.1 Introduction.- 3.7.2 Scaling Relationships.- 3.7.3 Shading and Blocking Calculations.- 3.7.4 Flux Density Distribution at the Receiver.- 3.8 Design Issues and Constraints.- 3.8.1 Preliminary System Level Considerations.- 3.8.2 System Optimization.- 3.8.3 System Performance.- 3.8.4 Layout.- 3.9 System Sizing.- 3.10 Appendix: Frequently Used Symbols.- 4 Aspects of Solar Power Plant Engineering.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Solar and Conventional Power Plants: Similarities and Differences.- 4.3 Engineering Aspects.- 4.3.1 Collection.- 4.3.2 Energy Conversion.- 4.3.3 Characterization and Physical Properties of Solar Power Plants.- 4.4 Design Aspects.- 4.4.1 Terminology.- 4.4.2 Factors Influencing Power and Energy Performance.- 4.4.3 Design Objectives.- 4.4.4 Design Process and Parameters.- 5 Thermal Receivers.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Principles and Concepts for Energy Transfer.- 5.3 Thermal and Thermodynamic Basis for Receiver Design.- 5.4 Physical Interactions.- 5.5 Engineering Methods of Computation.- 5.6 Receiver Designs.- 5.6.1 Tube Receiver Concept (Central Receiver).- 5.6.2 Tube Receiver Concept (Parabolic Trough).- 5.6.3 Volumetric Receiver Concept.- 5.6.4 Direct Absorption Receiver Concept.- 5.7 Relationships Between Design and Type of Application.- 5.8 Status and Prospects.- 5.9 Measurement Techniques.- 5.10 Receiver Loss Calculation Examples.- 5.11 Appendix: Frequently Used Terms.- 6 Thermal Storage for Solar Power Plants.- 6.1 Impact of Storage on Solar Power Plants.- 6.1.1 Capacity Factor and Solar Multiple.- 6.1.2 Optimization of Solar Multiple and Storage Capacity.- 6.2 Media for Thermal Storage.- 6.2.1 Sensible Heat Storage Media.- 6.2.2 Latent Heat Storage Media.- 6.2.3 Chemical Storage Media.- 6.2.4 Single Versus Dual Medium Concepts.- 6.3 State-of-the-art of Thermal Storage for Solar Power Plants.- 6.3.1 Thermal Storage for Oil-Cooled Solar Plants.- 6.3.2 Thermal Storage for Steam-Cooled Solar Plants.- 6.3.3 Thermal Storage for Molten Salt-Cooled Solar Plants.- 6.3.4 Thermal Storage for Sodium-Cooled Solar Plants.- 6.3.5 Thermal Storage for Gas-Cooled Solar Plants.- 6.4 Appendix: Frequently Used Symbols.- 7 Thermal Solar Power Plants Experience.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Farm Solar Power Plants with Line-Focussing Collectors.- 7.2.1 Plant Configurations.- 7.2.2 System Examples.- 7.2.3 Collector Subsystem.- 7.2.4 Plant Performance Characteristics.- 7.2.5 Technical and Operational Potential.- 7.3 Farm Solar Power Plants with Point-Focussing Collectors.- 7.3.1 Plant Configurations.- 7.3.2 System Examples.- 7.3.3 Plant Performance Characteristics.- 7.3.4 Technological and Operational Potential.- 7.4 Central Receiver Solar Power Plants with Heliostat Fields.- 7.4.1 Plant Configurations.- 7.4.2 System Examples.- 7.4.3 Heliostat and Heliostat Field.- 7.4.4 Plant Performance.- 7.4.5 Plant Performance Characteristics.- 7.4.6 Technological and Operational Potential.- 7.5 Individual Dish Solar Power Plants.- 7.5.1 Configuration and Technology.- 7.5.2 Dish/Stirling Examples.- 7.5.3 Plant Performance.- 7.5.4 Plant Characteristics.- 7.5.5 Technological and Operational Potential.- 7.6 Comparison of Thermal Solar Power Plants.- 7.6.1 Performance Comparison.- 7.6.2 Long-term Operating Histories.- 7.7 Test Sites for Solar-Thermal R&D.- 7.8 Thermal Solar Power Plant Modelling and Calculation Codes.- 7.8.1 Performance Models.- 7.8.2 Economic Analysis Models.- 7.9 Appendix: Solar Thermal Facility Data.- 8 Photovoltaic Power Stations.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Technical Aspects of Solar Cells.- 8.2.1 IV-Characteristic of Solar Cells.- 8.2.2 Temperature Effects.- 8.2.3 Radiation Absorption and Material Selection.- 8.2.4 Tandem Systems.- 8.3 Status of Solar Cell Development.- 8.3.1 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells.- 8.3.2 Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells.- 8.3.3 Polycrystalline Thin Film Solar Cells.- 8.3.4 Concentrator Cells.- 8.3.5 Tandem Solar Cells.- 8.4 Photovoltaic Modules.- 8.4.1 Status of Non-Concentrator Module Technology.- 8.4.2 Module Design and Interconnection of Cells.- 8.5 Power Conditioning Systems.- 8.5.1 DC-DC Converter, Maximum-Power-Point Tracking.- 8.5.2 DC-AC Inverter.- 8.5.3 Batteries and Charge Regulators.- 8.6 Supporting Structures.- 8.6.1 Basic Design Considerations.- 8.6.2 Review of Selected Support Structures.- 8.6.3 Support Structures for Tracking Arrays.- 8.7 Tracking and Concentrating Systems.- 8.7.1 Fresnel Modules.- 8.7.2 V-Trough Concentrator.- 8.7.3 Parabolic Geometries.- 8.7.4 Further Concentrator Concepts.- 8.7.5 Perspectives of Tracking and Concentrating Systems.- 8.8 Design Considerations for Grid-Connected Power Plants.- 8.8.1 Site and System Selection.- 8.8.2 Electrical Circuit Design Aspects.- 8.8.3 Plant Monitoring.- 8.9 PV Plant Operating Experience.- 8.9.1 The Experience Base.- 8.9.2 Operating Experience.- 8.9.3 Summary and Conclusions.- 8.10 Photovoltaic Solar Systems Modelling and Calculation Codes.- 8.11 Appendix: Frequently Used Symbols.- 8.12 Appendix: Photovoltaic Facility Data.- 9 Solar Fuels and Chemicals, Solar Hydrogen.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Endothermal Chemical Processes Coupled with Solar Energy.- 9.3 Receiver-Reactors for Solar Chemical Applications.- 9.4 High Temperature Processes for Fuels and Chemicals Production.- 9.5 Additional Chemical Processing Using Solar Energy.- 9.6 Steam/Carbondioxide Reforming of Methane - A Candidate Process.- 9.7 High Temperature Processes by Direct Absorption of Solar Radiation.- 9.8 Electrolytic Production of Hydrogen with Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Power Plants.- 9.8.1 Electrolytic Production of Hydrogen with Photovoltaic Systems.- 9.8.2 Electrolytic Production of Hydrogen with Thermal Solar Power Plants.- 10 Cost Analysis of Solar Power Plants.- 10.1 SPP Technologies in Comparison.- 10.2 Investment, Operating and Maintenance Cost.- 10.2.1 Parabolic Trough Solar Power Plants.- 10.2.2 Central Receiver (Tower) Solar Power Plants.- 10.2.3 Dish/Stirling Units.- 10.2.4 Photovoltaic Solar Power Plants.- 10.3 Power Plant Cost Analysis and Comparison.- 10.3.1 Conventional Power Plant Generating Costs.- 10.3.2 Solar Power Plant Generating Costs.- 10.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis of SPP Generating Costs.- 10.3.4 Social Costs.- 10.4 Market Considerations.- 10.4.1 Introduction.- 10.4.2 Costs.- 10.4.3 Value.- 10.4.4 Financing.- 10.4.5 Risk.- 10.4.6 Market Potential and Outlook.- Appendix A: Glossary of Terms.- A.1 Solar Resource Terminology.- A.2 Solar Thermal Terminology.- A.3 Photovoltaic Terminology.- A.4 Financial Terminology.- Appendix B: Abbreviations and Acronyms.- B.1 Radiation, Solar.- B.2 Thermal.- B.3 Photovoltaic.- B.4 Cost/Economic.- B.5 Acronyms.