Preamble xx
Abbreviations xxiii
About the Companion Website xxiv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Energy Supply in General 1
1.2 Electrochemical and Non-electrochemical Energy Technologies 3
1.3 Basic Properties of Batteries: Similarities and Differences 5
1.4 Bridging Time 7
1.5 Comparison of Battery Technologies 9
1.6 Applications and Integration of Batteries into Overall Systems 10
References 11
Tasks 11
2 Electrochemical Basics 13
2.1 Basic Electrochemical Terms 14
2.2 Electrochemical Thermodynamics 19
2.3 Electrochemical Kinetics 24
2.4 Equivalent Circuit Diagrams 37
2.5 Side Reactions 41
References 42
Tasks 43
3 Charging and Discharging Cells and Batteries 47
3.1 Definitions of Capacity and Internal Resistance 48
3.2 Terms Used for Charging and Discharging Batteries 50
3.3 Discharging and Charging the Electrodes of a Cell 55
3.4 Series Connection of Electrodes – Interactions Between Electrodes 61
3.5 Discharging and Charging Electrodes in a Cell 62
3.6 Effects of a Short Circuit in a Cell Connected in Series 71
3.7 Fault Propagation, Parallel Battery Strings, and More 72
References 72
Tasks 72
4 Structure of Electrodes, Design of Cells, and Complete Battery Systems 75
4.1 Electrochemical Requirements for the Structure of Active Masses 76
4.2 Structure of Cells 81
4.3 Combined Ion and Electron Conductivity of the Electrodes 87
4.4 Cell Containers and Battery Systems 88
References 90
Tasks 90
5 Thermal Properties of Cells and Batteries 93
5.1 Inhomogeneous Heat Capacity and Anisotropic Heat Conduction 94
5.2 Heat Generation 95
5.3 Heat Exchange with the Environment 99
5.4 Effect on Temperature 101
5.5 Determination of Thermal Parameters 103
References 103
Task 103
6 Ageing Processes and Service Life of Batteries and Cells 105
6.1 Classification of Aging Processes 106
6.2 Service Life 107
6.3 Limits of the Service Life 113
6.4 Lifetime Prediction 114
References 116
Tasks 117
7 State of X Definitions and Calculations 119
7.1 Background 119
7.2 State of Charge, Depth of Discharge, State of Energy 120
7.3 State of Health and State of Function 127
7.4 State of Safety 129
References 129
Task 130
8 Battery Models 131
8.1 Classification, Use, and Limitations of Models 131
8.2 Equivalent Circuit Diagram Models 133
8.3 Models with Parameters Independent of State of Charge: The Shepherd Model 138
8.4 Models with State of Charge-Dependent Parameters 140
8.5 Simulation Process 142
8.6 Comparison of Models 143
8.7 Modeling Larger Systems 144
References 145
Further Reading 145
Tasks 146
9 Determination of Parameters 147
9.1 Definitions 147
9.2 Determination by Physicochemical Methods 148
9.3 Open-Circuit Voltage Curves 151
9.4 Internal Resistance Determination with Current or Voltage Pulses 152
9.5 Short-Circuit Current 155
9.6 Parameterization for the Randles Model Using Pulse Currents (Measurement in the Time Domain) 156
9.7 Parameter Determination by Measuring the Impedance Spectrum (Measurement in the Frequency Domain) 157
9.8 Measurement of the AC Resistance 158
9.9 Parameterization of the Randles Model Across All Operating States 159
References 160
Further Reading 161
Tasks 161
10 Battery Diagnostics and Analytics 163
10.1 Overview of Methods 163
10.2 Evaluation of Changes in Electrical Parameters 164
10.3 Electrochemical Analysis Methods 165
10.4 Chemical and Spectroscopic Methods – Postmortem Analysis Methods 169
10.5 In Situ Analysis Procedures 175
10.6 Summary 176
References 176
Tasks 177
11 Overview of Battery Systems 179
11.1 Physicochemical Data and Characteristics 179
11.2 Investment and Operating Costs 184
11.3 Market Structure 184
11.4 Availability of Information 185
11.5 Level of Standardization 185
Further Reading 186
12 Lead–Acid Batteries 187
12.1 Introduction and Economic Significance 188
12.2 Electrochemistry 188
12.3 Other Electrochemical Reactions 199
12.4 Active Materials 204
12.5 Electrolyte 210
12.6 Current Collectors, Grids 213
12.7 Manufacturing Process and Other Components for the Production of Cells or Blocks 216
12.8 Current Inhomogeneity 221
12.9 Acid Stratification 222
12.10 Design and Design Differences for Various Applications 225
12.11 Properties 229
12.12 Charging and Charging Characteristics 237
12.13 Aging Effects 247
12.14 Corrosion of the Positive Grid and Connector Lead, Negative Terminals and Intercell Connectors 252
12.15 Corrosion of the Intercell Connectors 258
12.16 Operating Strategies and Design Implications for Lead–Acid Batteries 260
12.17 Determination of Battery States 262
12.18 Safety 264
12.19 Battery Problems 267
References 268
Further Reading 271
Tasks 271
13 Lithium-Ion Batteries 275
13.1 Introduction and Economic Significance 276
13.2 Electrochemistry 277
13.3 Active Materials 282
13.4 Electrolyte 289
13.5 Solid–Electrolyte Interface and Its Significance for Lithium-Ion Batteries 293
13.6 Current Collectors 294
13.7 Production of Electrodes 295
13.8 Separators 296
13.9 Safety Measures 297
13.10 Types of Lithium-Ion Batteries 299
13.11 Dimensioning of Cells and Design Differences for Different Applications 304
13.12 Properties 308
13.13 Internal Resistance Measurement 310
13.14 Charging and Charging Characteristics 311
13.15 Aging Effects 313
13.16 Influence of Calendar and Cyclic Aging and Modeling 319
13.17 Battery Management Systems and Battery Operating Strategies 323
13.18 Determination of Battery States and Parameters 331
13.19 Safety 333
13.20 Causes and Test Conditions for Thermal Runaway and Thermal Propagation 339
13.21 Thermal Runaway 343
13.22 Thermal Propagation 348
13.23 Safety Engineering 353
13.24 Further Battery Problems 354
References 356
Further Reading 358
Tasks 359
14 Other Battery Technologies 361
14.1 Alkaline Nickel Batteries 362
14.2 Zinc–Air Batteries 369
14.3 Redox-Flow Batteries 372
14.4 High-Temperature Batteries 374
14.5 Lithium Solid-State Electrolyte Batteries 376
14.6 Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 378
14.7 Lithium–Air Batteries 381
14.8 Sodium–Air Batteries 382
14.9 Sodium-Ion Batteries 383
14.10 Ultracapacitors and Hybrid Batteries 384
References 386
Tasks 387
15 Overview of Applications 389
15.1 General Remarks 389
15.2 Use of Battery 391
15.3 State of Charge and Remaining Capacity 394
15.4 Efficiency 394
15.5 Safety and Environmentally Friendly Handling of Batteries 396
15.6 Subdivision into Application Areas 397
References 399
Task 399
16 Starter Batteries for Vehicles (Starting, Lighting, Ignition — SLI) 401
16.1 Definition 401
16.2 Requirements for the Battery 402
16.3 Choice of Battery Technology 407
16.4 Operation and Design 409
16.5 Monitoring of the Battery 411
16.6 Other 411
Reference 412
Tasks 412
17 Batteries for Electromobility 413
17.1 Definition 413
17.2 Requirements for the Battery 414
17.3 Choice of Battery Technology 418
17.4 Structure of the Battery System 419
17.5 Design and Operation 420
17.6 Monitoring the Battery 424
17.7 Other Aspects 425
References 426
Tasks 426
18 Traction Batteries for Material Handling 427
18.1 Industrial Trucks for Material Handling 427
18.2 Small Traction Batteries 436
References 437
19 Stationary Applications of Batteries 439
19.1 Standby Parallel Operation for Emergency Power Supply and UPS Systems 440
19.2 Diesel Start for Emergency Power Supply Systems 453
19.3 Batteries for Balancing Electricity Demand and Supply Over Time 455
19.4 Batteries for Stabilizing the Energy Supply System 462
References 464
Task 465
20 Batteries for Portable Applications 469
20.1 Definition 469
20.2 Requirements for the Battery 470
20.3 Choice of Battery Technology 472
20.4 Design and Operation 472
20.5 Monitoring the Batteries 474
20.6 Other Aspects 474
References 475
Tasks 475
Appendix A Overview of Terms 477
A.1 Galvanic Elements 477
A.2 Cells, Blocks, Modules, and Batteries 477
A.3 Reactions for Energy Conversion 478
A.4 Terms Used to Describe Electrochemical Reactions 479
A.5 Components of Galvanic Elements 482
A.6 Characteristics of Cells and Batteries 483
A.7 Operating Modes (According to DIN EN 50272-2) 486
A.8 State Variables 487
Appendix B Safe and Environmentally Friendly Handling of Batteries 489
B.1 General Information 489
B.2 Electrical Safety 490
B.3 Fire Protection 493
B.4 Explosion Protection 494
B.5 Requirements for Site of Installation and Transportation 498
B.6 Environmental Impact and Disposal 498
References 499
Appendix C Overview of Standards 501
C. 1 Importance and Role of Standards and Technical Regulations 501
C.2 Overview of Standards and Other Relevant Documents 503
Appendix D Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 509
D.1 Overview of Terms 509
D.2 Representation of Results 511
D.3 Determination of Cell Parameters Using Impedance Spectroscopy 512
D.4 Quality of Parameter Determination 518
References 520
Appendix E Acid Stratification 521
References 525
Index 527
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