Silicon-Germanium Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors

Preface. Introduction - The Magic of Silicon. Integrated Circuit Needs for the 21st Century. Application-Induced Design Constraints. The Dream: Bandgap Engineering in Silicon. The SiGe HBT. A Brief History of SiGe Technology. SiGe HBT Performance Trends. The IC Technology Battleground: Si vs SiGe vs III-V. The Bottom Line. SiGe Strained-Layer Epitaxy - Bulk Si and Ge. SiGe Alloys. Stability Constraints. Band Structure. Transport Parameters. Open Issues. The Bottom Line. SiGe HBT BiCMOS Technology - Integration Issues. SiGe HBT Structural Evolution. Profile Control and Design Tradeoffs. Carbon Doping of SiGe HBTs. Reliability Issues. CMOS Integration. Passives. The Bottom Line. dc Behavior - Intuitive Picture. Collector Current Density and Current Gain. Output Conductance. Equivalent Circuit Models. Avalanche Multiplication. Breakdown Voltages. The Bottom Line. Dynamic Behavior - Intuitive Picture. Charge Storage Effects. High-Frequency Equivalent. Circuit Models. Linear Two-Port Parameters. ac Figures-of-Merit. Base and Emitter Transit Times. ECL Gate Delay. The Bottom Line. Second Order Phenomena - Ge Grading Effects. Neutral Base Recombination. Heterojunction Barrier Effects. Noise - Fundamental Noise Characteristics. Linear Noisy Two-port Network Theory. Analytical Modeling. Optimal Sizing and Biasing for LNA Design. SiGe Profile Design Tradeoffs. Low-Frequency 1/f Noise. Substrate and Cross-Talk Noise. The Bottom Line. Linearity - Nonlinearity Concepts. Physical Nonlinearities. Volterra Series. Single HBT Amplifier Linearity. Cascode LNA Linearity. The Bottom Line. Temperature Effects - The Impact of Temperature on Bipolar Transistor Properties. Cryogenic Operation of SiGe HBTs. Optimization of SiGe HBTs for 77 K. Helium Temperature Operation. Non-Equilibrium Base Transport. High-Temperature Operation. The Bottom Line. Other Device Design Issues - Design of p-n-p SiGe HBTs. Arbitrary Band Alignments. Ge-Induced CB Field Effects. The Bottom Line. Radiation Tolerance - Radiation Concepts and Damage Mechanisms. The Effects of Radiation on SiGe HBTs. Technology Scaling Issues. Circuit-level Tolerance. Single Event Upset. The Bottom Line. Device Simulation - Semiconductor Equations. Application Issues. Probing Internal Device Operation. The Bottom Line. Future Directions - Profile Scaling and Integration Issues. Performance Limits. Other Si-Based Material Systems. The Bottom Line. Appendices - Operational Principles of Bipolar Transistors. Analysis of the Ideal Bipolar Transistor. High-Injection in Bipolar Transistors. The Generalized Moll-Ross Relations. Basic RF Concepts. Carrier Freeze-out. Measurement "Tricks-of-the-Trade."