Rule-Governed Behavior

I. The Nature and Place of Behavioral Analyses of Rule-Governed Behavior.- 1. Rules and Rule-Governance: Cognitive and Behavioristic Views.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Why Study Rules?.- 3. The Information-Processing Approach to Rules.- 3.1. Essence of the Approach.- 3.2. "Levels" of Cognitive Models.- 3.3. Productions and Production Systems.- 3.4. Evaluation of Cognitive Theories.- 4. Meanings of "Rule".- 4.1. Forms of Rules.- 4.2. Knowing Rules.- 5. Rules as Causes.- 5.1. Why Obey Rules?.- 5.2. What Is Controlled?.- 5.3. Are Rule-Governance and Contingency Shaping Different?.- 6. Inferring Rule Use.- 6.1. Inferences and Observations.- 6.2. Criteria for Inferring Rule Use.- 6.3. Spontaneously Learned Rules.- 7. Summary.- 8. References.- 2. The Behavior of the Listener.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Verbal Operant.- 3. Effects on the Listener.- 3.1. The Listener Is Told.- 3.2. The Listener Is Taught.- 3.3. The Listener Is Advised.- 3.4. The Listener Is Rule-Directed.- 3.5. The Listener Is Law Governed.- 3.6. The Listener Is Governed by the Laws of Science.- 3.7. The Listener as Reader.- 3.8. The Listener Agrees.- 3.9. The Listener and Speaker Think.- 4. References.- 3. Rule-Governed Behavior in Behavior Analysis: A Theoretical and Experimental History.- 1. Introduction.- 2. A Theoretical History of Rule-Governed Behavior.- 2.1. Rule-Governed Behavior: Its Roots in the Analysis of Verbal Behavior.- 2.2. Rule-Governed Behavior: An Elaboration of Its Practical Significance.- 2.3. Rule-Governed Behavior: A Further Elaboration in Light of the Emerging Psychology of Cognition.- 3. An Experimental History of Rule-Governed Behavior.- 3.1. Rule-Governed Behavior: Schedule-Sensitivity Research.- 3.2. Rule-Governed Behavior: Developmental Research.- 3.3. Rule-Governed Behavior: Stimulus-Equivalence Research.- 4. Conclusion.- 5. References.- 4. An Experimental Analysis of Rule-Governed Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Contingencies and Rules.- 2.1. Descriptions of Performances and of Contingencies.- 3. Experiment 1: Sampling Performance Hypotheses.- 3.1. Method.- 3.2. Results.- 3.3. Discussion.- 4. Experiment 2: Instructing Accurate Performance Hypotheses.- 4.1. Method.- 4.2. Results.- 4.3. Discussion.- 5. Experiment 3: Instructing Inaccurate Performance Hypotheses.- 5.1. Method.- 5.2. Results.- 5.3. Discussion.- 6. Experiment 4: Instructing Schedule Discriminations.- 6.1. Method.- 6.2. Results.- 6.3. Discussion.- 7. Experiment 5: Assessing Sensitivity to Contingencies.- 7.1. Method.- 7.2. Results.- 8. General Discussion.- 9. References.- II. The New Directions in the Analysis of Rule-Governed Behavior.- 5. The Verbal Action of the Listener as a Basis for Rule-Governance.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Experimental Problems Caused by the Deemphasis of the Listener.- 2.1. Is the Analysis of the Listener More Difficult?.- 3. The Listener at the Back Door.- 4. What Is a Verbal Stimulus?.- 4.1. Verbal Stimuli as Products of Verbal Behavior.- 4.2. Verbal Stimulus Functions.- 4.3. Explanations for Stimulus Equivalence.- 4.4. A Relational Account of Verbal Stimulation.- 5. Meaning and Rule-Governance.- 5.1. Speaking with Meaning.- 5.2. Listening with Understanding.- 5.3. Understanding a Rule.- 5.4. Following a Rule.- 6. Verbal Behavior.- 6.1. Why Would Verbal Stimulation Make a Difference?.- 7. Conclusion.- 8. References.- 6. Rule-Following.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Impact of Rule-Following on Other Psychological Processes.- 2.1. The Early Period.- 2.2. The Period of Stagnation.- 2.3. The Modern Era of Human Operant Research.- 2.4. Theoretical Analysis of Verbal Control.- 3. Understanding.- 3.1. How Can We Assess Understanding?.- 4. Rule-Following.- 4.1. Functional Units of Rule-Following.- 4.2. Rules as Rules for the Listener.- 4.3. Evidence for the Pliance-Tracking Distinction.- 5. Dangers Ahead in the Analysis of Rule-Governed Behavior.- 5.1. Insensitivity.- 5.2. Object-Oriented Accounts.- 6. Future Directions.- 7. Conclusion.- 8. References.- 7. Correlated Hypothesizing and the Distinction between Contingency-Shaped and Rule-Governed Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Nonmediational versus Mediational, rather than Behaviorist versus Cognitivist.- 2.1. Preliminary Sketch of Behaviorist Positions.- 2.2. Preliminary Sketch of Cognitivist Positions.- 3. Selected Concepts from Behavior-Analytic Theory.- 3.1. Open-Loop Relations.- 3.2. Closed-Loop Relations.- 3.3. Paths Not Taken Here.- 3.4. Elaborated Discriminative Relations.- 3.5. The Origins of Awareness in Behavior-Analytic Terms.- 3.6. Rules and Rule-Governed Behavior.- 3.7. Rules as Defined by Dual, Converging Sets of Contingencies.- 4. Characteristics of Cognitivist Interpretation.- 4.1. Basic Assumptions of Cognitivist Theory.- 4.2. Some Major Distinctions within Cognitivist Theory.- 4.3. Unconscious Functioning, According to Cognitivist Theory.- 4.4. Rules in Cognitivist Theory.- 4.5. Cognitivist Assumptions in Criticisms of Behaviorist Accounts.- 5. Conflicting Interpretations of Conditioning Experiments.- 5.1. A Cognitivist Proposal: Awareness through Correlated Hypothesizing.- 5.2. Behavioral Experiments Minimizing the Role of Awareness.- 5.3. The Continuing Dispute about Awareness.- 6. Correlated Hypotheses as Functional Operants?.- 6.1. Multiple Scales of Analysis.- 6.2. Multiple Converging Relationships: Verbal Behavior, Including Rules.- 7. Detailed Comparison of These Cognitivist and Behaviorist Accounts.- 7.1. Summary of the Cognitivist Account.- 7.2. Summary of the Behaviorist Account.- 7.3. Intersection of the Two Accounts.- 8. Additional Experimental Techniques Addressing Hypotheses and Rules.- 9. Converging but Distinct Interpretations.- 10. References.- 8. The Achievement of Evasive Goals: Control by Rules Describing Contingencies That Are Not Direct Acting.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Contingencies That Are Not Direct Acting.- 3. Delayed Outcomes.- 3.1. Human Behavior.- 3.2. Basic Research.- 3.3. The Natural Environment.- 3.4. Rule-Control.- 4. Improbable Outcomes.- 4.1. Basic Research.- 4.2. The Natural Environment.- 4.3. Human Behavior.- 4.4. Rule-Control.- 5. Cumulating Outcomes.- 5.1. Human Behavior.- 5.2. Basic Research.- 5.3. The Natural Environment.- 5.4. Rule-Control.- 6. Rules Specifying Contingencies That Are Not Direct Acting.- 6.1. How Do Rules Control Behavior?.- 6.2. Prerequisites for Control by Rules Specifying Contingencies That Are Not Direct Acting.- 6.3. How Do Contingencies That Are Not Direct Acting Control Behavior?.- 7. Other Approaches to Self-Management and Rule-Governed Behavior.- 7.1. Environmental Restructuring.- 7.2. Human Operant Research.- 7.3. Animal Operant Research.- 7.4. Public Goal Setting.- 8. Concluding Remarks.- 9. References.- III. Applied Implications of Rule-Governance.- 9. Some Clinical Implications of Rule-Governed Behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Problem of History.- 3. A Behavioral Taxonomy.- 3.1. Four Modalities of Behavior.- 3.2. Causality.- 3.3. Summary.- 4. Rule-Governed Behavior.- 4.1. Some Examples of Rules.- 4.2. Self-Rule-Governed Behavior.- 5. Rational-Emotive Therapy.- 5.1. Irrational Beliefs as Rules.- 5.2. Changing Rules.- 5.3. Changing Behavior.- 6. Self-Efficacy Theory.- 6.1. A Behavior Chain.- 6.2. Behavior Change.- 6.3. Discussion.- 7. Conclusions.- 8. References.- 10. Avoiding and Altering Rule-Control as a Strategy of Clinical Intervention.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Types of Problems in Rule-Control.- 2. Avoiding Rule-Control: The Strategy of Direct Shaping.- 2.1. Social Skills Training.- 2.2. Functional Analytic Psychotherapy.- 3. Alteration of Rule-Control: The Strategy of Recontextualization.- 3.1. Behavior-Behavior Relations.- 3.2. Contexts Relevant to Pathological Self-Rule Control.- 3.3. The Problem and the Solution.- 3.4. Evidence of Efficacy.- 4. Conclusion.- 5. References.