List of Contributors ix
Preface xi
1 Quinoa: An Incan Crop to Face Global Changes in Agriculture 1
Juan Antonio Gonzalez, Sayed S. S.Eisa, Sayed A. E. S. Hussin, and Fernando Eduardo Prado
Introduction 1
A Brief History of Quinoa Cultivation 2
Nutritional Value of Quinoa Seed 2
Botanical and Genetic Characteristics of the Quinoa Plant 5
Quinoa and Environmental Stresses:Drought and Salinity 7
Conclusion 12
References 12
2 History of Quinoa: Its Origin,Domestication,Diversification,and Cultivation with Particular Reference to the Chilean Context 19
Enrique A. Martinez, Francisco F.Fuentes, and Didier Bazile
Quinoa Origins in the Central Andes 19
Ancient Expansion to Southern Latitudes in Chile 20
Reintroduction of Quinoa in Arid Chile after Local Extinction 20
Final Remarks 23
References 23
3 Agroecological and Agronomic Cultural Practices of Quinoa in South America 25
Magali Garcia, Bruno Condori, and Carmen Del Castillo
Introduction 25
Andean Domestication 26
Botanical and Taxonomical Description 27
Genetic Background and Research on Quinoa Genetics 28
Ecology and Phytogeography 30
Cultivation and Agronomic Practices in South America 30
Quinoa Production 31
Soil conditions 31
Climate 32
Drought resistance 32
Temperature and photoperiod 33
Hail 34
Cultivation 34
Sowing 34
Fertilization of quinoa 36
Cultural practices 37
Crop water requirements and irrigation 37
Biotic threats: pests and diseases 38
Seed harvest and postharvest technology 39
References 41
4 Trends in Quinoa Yield over the Southern Bolivian Altiplano:Lessons from Climate and Land-Use Projections 47
Serge Rambal, Jean-Pierre Ratte, Florent Mouillot, and Thierry Winkel
Summary 47
Introduction 48
Materials and Methods 49
The study area 49
Recent past and present climate 49
Source of climate scenarios 50
Simulating the yield index at local or plot scale 50
The soil water balance model 50
Scenarios of land-use/land-cover changes 51
Scaling local yield index up to the region 51
Results 52
Drought history over the area 52
Climate projections and soil drought limitation 52
Time variation of yield at local or plot scale 54
Model results at landscape level 56
Discussion 57
Acknowledgments 60
References 60
5 The Potential of Using Natural Enemies and Chemical Compounds in Quinoa for Biological Control of Insect Pests 63
Mariana Valoy, Carmen Reguilon,and Griselda Podazza
Introduction 63
Insects in Quinoa 64
Insect pests of quinoa 65
Beneficial insects in quinoa 65
Chemical responses of quinoa to insect herbivory 72
Quinoa secondary metabolites 74
Potential of Biological Control in Quinoa 76
Potential for Ecological Management of Quinoa 77
References 80
6 Quinoa Breeding 87
Luz Gomez-Pando
History – Domestication Process 87
Collection of Genetic Resources 88
Goals and Methods of Quinoa Breeding 92
Requirement of the farmers 92
Requirements of the industry and consumers 95
Methods in genetic improvement 96
Quinoa Breeding Methods 98
Selection 98
Participatory plant breeding (PPB) 98
Introduction of foreign germplasm 99
Hybridization 99
Interspecific and intergeneric crosses 102
Backcross method 102
Using heterosis in quinoa 102
Mutagenesis 103
Marker-assisted selection (MAS) 103
Conclusion 103
References 103
7 Quinoa Cytogenetics, Molecular Genetics, and Diversity 109
Janet B. Matanguihan, Peter J.Maughan, Eric N. Jellen, and Bozena Kolano
Introduction 109
Cytogenetics and Genome Structure of Chenopodium Quinoa 109
Crossability of Quinoa and Allied Tetraploid Taxa 111
DNA Sequence Evidence for Quinoa’s Genomic Origins 112
Quinoa GeneticMarkers and Linkage Maps 113
Quinoa Diversity 115
Phenotypic diversity 115
Genetic diversity 117
Summary 118
References 120
8 Ex Situ Conservation of Quinoa:The Bolivian Experience 125
Wilfredo Rojas and Milton Pinto
Introduction 125
Centers of Origin and Diversity of Quinoa 126
Geographical Distribution of Quinoa 127
Genebanks of the Andean Region 128
Bolivian Collection of Quinoa
Germplasm 130
History and management of the quinoa germplasm 130
Current status of quinoa germplasm 132
Steps for Ex Situ Management and
Conservation of Quinoa 132
Collection of quinoa germplasm 133
Technical procedure for quinoa germplasm collection 133
History and evolution of quinoa germplasm collections 134
Distribution of quinoa germplasm collection 136
Preliminary multiplication of quinoa germplasm 136
Storage and conservation of quinoa germplasm 138
Short- and medium-term storage (1 to 20 years) 138
Long-term storage (80 to 100 years) 138
Characterization and evaluation of the quinoa germplasm 140
Stages of germplasm characterization and evaluation 140
Agromorphological variables 141
Agro-food and nutritional value variables 143
Molecular characterization 144
Multiplication and regeneration of quinoa germplasm 144
Monitoring of seed quantity and percentage of seed germination 145
Technical procedure for multiplication and/or regeneration 145
Regeneration schedule 146
Documentation and information on quinoa germplasm 147
Utilization of quinoa germplasm 148
Conclusions 155
References 158
9 Quinoa Breeding in Africa:History, Goals, and Progress 161
Moses F.A. Maliro and Veronica Guwela
Introduction 161
Origin of quinoa 161
Introducing quinoa in Africa 161
Ecological adaptation of quinoa 163
Goals of Quinoa Breeding in Africa 164
Quinoa studies underMalawi conditions 164
Quinoa studies in Kenya 166
Challenges and Considerations for Future Research 169
Plant lodging 169
Acceptability 169
Agronomic practices 170
Rain-fed versus irrigated cropping systems 170
Conclusion 170
References 170
10 Quinoa Cultivation for Temperate North America:Considerations and Areas for Investigation 173
Adam J. Peterson and Kevin M. Murphy
Introduction 173
Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses 173
Heat tolerance 173
Drought tolerance 174
Cold tolerance 175
Salinity tolerance 176
Production Aspects 177
Variety selection 177
Fertilization 178
Planting/spacing 179
Maturity and harvesting 181
Challenges to Quinoa Production 182
Waterlogging and preharvest sprouting 182
Disease 183
Insect pests 184
Weed control 185
Saponins 186
Alternative Uses of Quinoa 186
Forage 186
Feed 187
Conclusion 187
Acknowledgments 188
References 188
11 Nutritional Properties of Quinoa 193
Geyang Wu
Introduction 193
Protein 193
Carbohydrates 196
Starch 196
Sugar 198
Dietary fiber 198
Lipids 199
Vitamins 200
Minerals 201
Anti-Nutritional Factors of Quinoa 202
Bioactive Compounds 204
Phenolic compounds 204
Phenolic acid 204
Flavonoids 204
Carotenoids 205
Summary 205
References 205
12 Quinoa’s Calling 211
Sergio Nunez de Arco
Introduction 211
A Snapshot of the Economics of a Smallholder Farmer in Bolivia and the International Market 212
The Quinoa Market: Supply and Demand 213
Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador increase quinoa acreage 213
Evolution of quinoa,(Figs. 12.7–12.10 and Fig. 12.3) acreage in Bolivia 213
The US quinoa market and evolution of prices 215
Quinoa in the eye of a market storm 215
The quinoa grower rises out of poverty 217
Current Production Practices, Increased
Acreage, and Thoughts on Sustainability 221
Living Well, Reversed Migration, and Cultural Identity 224
Opportunities for the Bolivian Farmer 225
Index 227
