Process Design for Cryogenics

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxi

Symbols, Signs, and Abbreviations xxiii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Historical Background 3

1.2 Cryogenic Applications 5

References 9

2 Basics of Process Design 11

2.1 Design Procedure 12

2.2 Process Simulators and Fluid Properties 15

2.3 Optimization 15

2.4 Control Concept 17

References 18

3 Cryogenic Fluids 19

3.1 Air 19

3.2 Nitrogen 22

3.3 Oxygen 23

3.4 Argon 24

3.5 Methane 25

3.6 Neon 26

3.7 Hydrogen 27

3.8 Helium 31

3.9 Temperature–Enthalpy Diagram 34

3.10 Temperature–Entropy Diagram 36

References 38

4 Reversibility Concept 39

4.1 Reversibility and Irreversibility 39

4.1.1 Irreversibility 39

4.1.2 Reversibility 40

4.2 Carnot Engine 40

4.3 Reversible Process as Benchmark 42

4.4 Entropy 42

4.5 Exergy Concept 45

4.6 Application of Exergy Concept for Thermodynamic Analysis, Exergy Loss 49

5 Unit Operations for Cryogenic Processes 51

5.1 Isenthalpic Expansion 51

5.2 Expansion in Expander 62

5.3 Heat Exchanger 72

5.4 Single Adiabatic Compression Stage 81

5.5 Multi-Stage Compression, Isothermal Compression 86

References 94

6 Key Hardware Components 95

6.1 Thermal Insulation/Coldbox 95

6.2 Heat Exchanger 101

6.3 Expanders 115

6.4 Expansion Valve 136

6.5 Compressors 136

References 167

7 Cryogenic Refrigeration 169

7.1 Principle of Cryogenic Refrigeration 172

7.2 Joule–Thomson Process (Nitrogen Joule–Thomson Process) 181

7.3 Brayton Process 213

7.4 Claude Process 236

7.5 Mixed-Fluid Joule–Thomson Process 279

7.6 Cryogenic Refrigeration Processes, Life Cycle 330

References 331

8 Liquefaction of Cryogenic Gases 333

8.1 Thermodynamic Basics for Liquefaction 333

8.2 Nitrogen Liquefaction 355

8.3 Helium Liquefaction 374

8.4 Natural Gas Liquefaction 400

References 438

9 Supplements 439

9.1 Supplements for Cryogenic Refrigeration 439

9.2 Supplements for Liquefaction 445

References 487

Index 489