List of Contributors xvii
Preface xxi
1 Phytotherapies-Past, Present, and Future 1
Iqbal Ramzan and George Q. Li
1.1 Overview of Phytotherapy 1
1.2 Preclinical Research on Phytotherapies 3
1.3 Clinical Research on Phytotherapies 6
1.4 Safety of Phytotherapies 8
1.5 Profile of Research in Complementary Medicine 9
1.6 Summary and Future Directions 12
References 12
2 Quality Control and Quality Assurance of Phytomedicines: Key Considerations, Methods, and Analytical Challenges 18
Wai-Ping Yau, Cheong Hian Goh, and Hwee-Ling Koh
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Key Considerations in QC/QA of Phytomedicines 20
2.3 Methods for QC/QA of Phytomedicines 27
2.4 Challenges 37
2.5 Conclusions 40
References 40
3 Preclinical (In Vivo) and Laboratory (In Vitro) Evidence of Phytomedicine Efficacy 49
Mohi Iqbal Mohammed Abdul and Tom Hsun-Wei Huang
3.1 Introduction to Development of Drugs from Nature 49
3.2 Use of In Vitro and in Vivo Models in Herb Drug Research: Learning Thus Far 50
3.3 Cardiovascular- and Stroke-Related Diseases: In Vitro and In Vivo Focus 53
3.4 Conclusions 60
References 61
4 Clinical Efficacy Trials with Natural Products and Herbal Medicines 65
Christina L. Nance
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Trials in Various Disease States 66
4.3 Natural Product: Green Tea 73
4.4 EGCG Clinical Trials 75
4.5 Human Clinical Study: EGCG and HIV-1 Infection 78
4.6 Conclusion 80
References 80
5 Novel Formulations and Drug Delivery Systems for Phytotherapies 89
Shengpeng Wang, Meiwan Chen, Qi (Tony) Zhou, and Hak-Kim Chan
5.1 Limitations of Conventional Formulations for Herbal Medicines 89
5.2 Crucial Issues of Developing Novel Delivery Systems for Herbal Medicines 91
5.3 Novel Delivery Systems of Herbal Medicines 93
5.4 Summary 96
References 97
6 Phytotherapies Used by Indigenous Populations 101
Bradley S. Simpson and Susan J. Semple
6.1 Introduction 101
6.2 Phytotherapies of Indigenous Australians 103
6.3 Challenges of a Changing Environment 114
6.4 Conclusions 117
References 118
7 Phytotherapies from Traditional Chinese Medicine 122
Michael Rieder
7.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine 122
7.2 Key Concepts in Traditional Chinese Medicine 124
7.3 Herbal Medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine 126
7.4 Issues in the Development of Phytotherapy from Traditional Chinese Medicine 130
7.5 Phytotherapies Developed from Traditional Chinese Medicine 131
7.6 Huang Qin Tang and the Development of PHY906 134
7.7 Ginseng 136
7.8 Moving Forward 138
References 138
8 Integrating Traditional Greco-Arab and Islamic Diet and Herbal Medicines in Research and Clinical Practice 142
Bashar Saad
8.1 Introduction 142
8.2 Food Therapy in Greco-Arab and Islamic Medicine 147
8.3 Medicinal Plants 157
References 177
9 Evolution of Herbal Medicines in Europe and its Relationship with Modern Medicine 183
Elizabeth M. Williamson and Kelvin Chan
9.1 Background 183
9.2 Historical Perspective 184
9.3 European Herbal Medicine: Relationship with Modern Medicine 194
9.4 Summary 194
References 196
10 Chemical Classification and Chemistry of Phytotherapeutics Constituents 199
Pei H. Cui and Colin C. Duke
10.1 Introduction 199
10.2 Phytochemicals 201
10.3 Other Phytochemicals 215
10.4 Medicinal Effects Relating to Dietary Intake 217
10.5 Natural Products as Leads for Drug Development 223
10.6 Summary 230
References 230
11 Therapeutic Potential of Ginsenosides in Management of Atherosclerosis 236
Xiao-Jing Zhang, Huanxing Su, Yi-Tao Wang, and Jian-Bo Wan
11.1 Introduction 236
11.2 Chemical Diversity of Ginsenosides and Distribution 238
11.3 Anti-Atherosclerotic Effects of Ginsenosides 240
11.4 Underlying Mechanisms of Ginsenosides Against Atherosclerosis 244
11.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 258
Acknowledgments 258
References 258
12 Phytotherapy Pharmacophores for Major Cellular Drug Targets 268
Jennifer A. Ong, Paul W. Groundwater, and David E. Hibbs
12.1 Introduction 268
12.2 What is a Pharmacophore? 269
12.3 Pharmacophore Models of Cardiovascular Drugs 270
12.4 Pharmacophore Models for Anticancer Drugs 285
12.5 Pharmacophore Models for Anti-Inflammatory Drugs 290
12.6 Pharmacophore Models for Anti-Infective Drugs 297
12.7 Pharmacophore Models for Neurological Drugs 299
12.8 Pharmacophore Models for Miscellaneous Drugs 305
12.9 Conclusions 309
References 309
13 Use of Kava as a Phytotherapeutic Agent and Kava-Related Hepatotoxicity 312
Dong Fu and Iqbal Ramzan
13.1 Introduction 312
13.2 Active Components in Kava 313
13.3 Therapeutic Applications of Kava 314
13.4 Pharmacology of Kava 314
13.5 Side Effects of Kava 317
13.6 Hepatotoxicity of Kava 318
13.7 Summary and Future Challenges 322
References 323
14 Phytotherapies as New Drug Sources: Gossypol and Curcumin 330
Vivian Wan Yu Liao, Rajeshwar Narlawar, David E. Hibbs, and Paul W. Groundwater
14.1 Botanical Sources of Gossypol and Curcumin 330
14.2 Stereoisomerism, Tautomerism, and Reactivity 332
14.3 Biological Activity of Gossypol and its Analogues 337
14.4 Biological Activity of Curcumin and its Analogues 346
References 360
15 Phytotherapies for the Management of Obesity and Diabetes 370
Michel Rapinski and Alain Cuerrier
15.1 Introduction 370
15.2 Plants from the North American Pharmacopoeia 372
15.3 Pharmacological Screening: Providing Empirical Evidence for Phytotherapies 379
15.4 Community-Based Participation: Developing Phytotherapies from Traditional Knowledge 385
15.5 Conclusions 387
References 387
16 Phytotherapeutics for Cancer Therapy 394
Daniel M.-Y. Sze, Hao Liu, Maureen V. Boost, Raimond Wong, and Stephen Sagar
16.1 Introduction 394
16.2 Anticancer Phytotherapeutics With NK Enhancement 395
16.3 Conclusions 423
References 425
17 Phytomedicines for Fatty Liver Disease and Functional Gastrointestinal Conditions 429
George Q. Li, Moon-Sun Kim, Fangming Jin, and Jun-Lae Cho
17.1 Introduction 429
17.2 Phytomedicines for FLD 430
17.3 Phytomedicines for IBS 439
17.4 Phytomedicines for Constipation 444
17.5 Summary and Future Perspectives 448
References 448
18 Phytomedicines for Inflammatory Conditions 464
Sigrun Chrubasik-Hausmann
18.1 Traditional Medicines for Inflammatory Conditions in Europe 464
18.2 Twenty-First-Century Update on Paids 465
18.3 Oral Extracts from Salix Species 465
18.4 Oral Extracts from Harpagophytum procumbens 468
18.5 Oral Avocado-Soybean Unsaponifiables 469
18.6 Oral Extracts From Tripterygium wilfordii 473
18.7 Oral Paids Containing Unsaturated Fatty Acids 475
18.8 Other Oral Paids 476
18.9 Topical Paids 477
References 478
19 Phytotherapies for Infectious Diseases: Are These Really Useful? 483
Gail B. Mahady, Gabrielle Escalante, Pooja Mikkilineni, Laura J. Mahady, Temitope O. Lawal, and Bolanle A. Adeniyi
The History of Medicine 483
19.1 Introduction 484
19.2 Historical Precedent for Natural Products as Antimicrobial Drugs 486
19.3 Are Phytotherapies Useful for the Treatment of Infectious Diseases? 487
19.4 Naturally Occurring Compounds that may Reduce Zoonosis 495
19.5 Synergistic and Additive Effects with Antibiotics 496
19.6 New Emerging Infectious Diseases and those with no Known Treatments 496
19.7 SARS 497
19.8 Reducing MRSA Carriage 498
19.9 Conclusions 499
References 500
20 Phytomedicines for CNS Disorders: Safety Issues for use with Antiepileptic Drugs 504
Sophia Yui Kau Fong, Rosina Yau Mok, Qiong Gao, Yin Cheong Wong, and Zhong Zuo
20.1 Introduction 504
20.2 Methodology of Systematic Literature Search 506
20.3 Pharmacokinetic Interactions 506
20.4 Pharmacodynamic Interactions 512
20.5 Conclusions 524
References 524
21 Phytotherapies: Drug Interactions in Cancer 536
Andrew J. McLachlan and Stephen J. Clarke
21.1 Introduction 536
21.2 Use of Herbal and Complementary Medicines by People Living with Cancer 537
21.3 Mechanisms of Phytotherapy-Drug Interactions 538
21.4 Selected Examples of Phytotherapy Medicines that have the Potential to Cause Drug Interactions in Cancer 540
21.5 Future Perspectives: Need for Evidence and Advice to Cancer Patients and Physicians 546
21.6 Conclusions 547
Acknowledgments 547
Conflict of Interest 547
References 547
22 Quality Use of Medicines: Considerations in Phytotherapy 554
Lynn Weekes
22.1 Introduction 554
22.2 Relevance of Qum for Herbal Medicines 556
22.3 Use of Phytotherapies by Consumers 558
22.4 Consumer Attitudes and Beliefs about Herbal Medicines 559
22.5 Applying the Qum Framework to Phytotherapies 561
22.6 Building Blocks for Quality Use of Herbal Medicines 566
22.7 Conclusion 570
References 570
23 Intellectual Property and Patent Issues with Phytotherapy Products 573
Gint Silins, Jennifer Tan, and Kelvin Chan
23.1 Introduction 573
23.2 IP Rights-Phyto-Industry 575
23.3 Brief Overview of Patents and the Patenting Process 578
23.4 Other Types of IP Rights 585
23.5 Patenting Trends for Phytotherapeutics 587
23.6 Traditional Knowledge and IP Rights 587
Disclaimer 589
References 590
24 International Regulatory Status of Phytotherapies 593
Ernest V. Linek
24.1 Introduction 593
24.2 Specific Country Regulations 596
24.3 Future of Phytotherapies: World Health Organization (WHO) 631
Further Reading 634
Index 635
