List of Figures xi
List of Tables xv
About the Author xvii
Preface xix
Section I Scientific and Technological Background to Materials 1
1 Historical Perspective and Evolution 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 The Chronology of Packaging Development 3
1.1.2 The Origins of Commercial Packaging 6
1.1.3 Closures, Films, and Plastics 6
1.1.4 Major Types of Packaging 7
1.2 Survey of Packaging Use 9
1.2.1 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Packaging 13
1.2.2 Types of Packaging: An Overview and the Basics 14
1.2.2.1 The Meaning of Symbols on Packaging 16
1.2.2.2 Glass Packaging 17
1.2.2.3 Metal Packaging 18
1.2.2.4 Paper and Cardboard Packaging 19
1.2.2.5 Wooden Packaging 20
1.2.2.6 Plastic Packaging 20
1.2.2.7 Composite Packaging 22
1.2.2.8 Novel Materials: Bioplastics and Oxo-Degradable Polymers 22
References 24
2 Chemical Engineering of Packaging Materials 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Building Blocks, Extraction, and Raw Materials 30
2.3 Industrial Processes, Wood-Pulping, Processing, and Smelting 33
2.3.1 Refining Ores 33
2.3.2 Forming and Sheet-Making 35
2.4 Making Glass 36
References 41
3 Material Science and Chemistry 43
3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Glasses 44
3.3 Metallic Materials 48
3.3.1 Aluminium, Tinplate, Steel, and Brass 49
3.4 Polymeric Materials 56
3.4.1 Polyolefins, Cellulosics, and Polyisoprenes 64
3.4.2 Thermosets and Thermoforming Plastics 68
3.4.3 Laminates 74
3.4.4 Expanded Materials 79
3.4.5 Paper and Paperboard 80
3.5 Colorants, Opacifiers, and Colouring 84
3.5.1 Coal Tar Dyes, Lakes, and Pigments 90
3.6 Plasticisers and Other Additives 92
3.6.1 Anti-Oxidants and Preservatives 98
3.6.2 Oxidations by Numerous Processes 98
3.7 Barriers, Barrier Properties, and Product Modification 105
3.7.1 Resistant Coatings 105
3.7.2 Ageing and Degradation 109
3.7.3 Chemical Breach and Leaching 112
3.7.4 Water and Gas Penetration 114
3.8 Estimating the Shelf Life of Packaging 126
3.9 Chemical Testing 134
3.10 Contemporary Issues and Controversies with Modern Packaging Materials 138
References 151
4 The Physics of Packaging Materials 161
4.1 Introduction 161
4.2 Characterisation of Packaging Substrates 165
4.2.1 Surface and Structural Morphology 167
4.2.1.1 Printing 175
4.2.2 Wettability, Polymorphism, Crystallinity and Crystallites, Melting, and Phase Behaviour 179
4.2.3 Toughness, Tensile Strength, and Youngâs Modulus 185
4.2.4 Brittleness, Hardness, and the Mohs Scale 187
4.2.5 Puncture Resistance and Slip 189
4.3 Test Methods 190
References 193
5 Engineering of the Product: Design, Formation, and Machining 197
5.1 Introduction 197
5.2 Fourdrinier Processing and Paper-Making 199
5.3 Sheeting, Injection Moulding, Thermoforming, Welding, Extrusion, Plasma Treatment, Annealing, and Curing 214
5.3.1 Bodies and Closures 221
5.3.2 Seals, Bungs, and the Septum 225
5.4 Classification of Moulded Packaging Forms 226
5.4.1 Bottles 229
5.4.2 Dosators 230
5.4.3 Pouches, Trays, Wallets, and Cartons 230
References 232
Section II Application and Processing 239
6 Packaging for Various Applications 241
6.1 Introduction 242
6.2 Hermetically Sealed Containers and Developments 248
6.2.1 The Tin-Plated Steel Can 251
6.2.1.1 Cans 254
6.2.2 Napoleon and Nicolas Appert: âThe Father of Canningâ 256
6.3 Modern Sterilisation and Pasteurisation Procedures and the Effects of Chemistry, Temperature, Pressure, and Irradiation on the Product and Pack 264
6.3.1 Retorting and High-Pressure Steam 283
6.3.2 Radappertisation, Radurisation, and Radicisation 289
6.3.3 Ethylene Oxide 294
6.3.4 Hyperbaric Treatment 295
6.3.5 Sterilised Pouches and the Tetra Pak® 297
6.4 Metered Therapeutic Dose Devices 299
6.5 Heat-Sealed Goods and Modified Atmosphere 300
6.6 Childproof and Easy-Open Packaging 308
6.7 Multi-Dose Pharmaceutical Bottles 310
References 310
7 Food, Pharmaceutical, and Medical Packaging 317
7.1 Introduction 317
7.2 Food Packaging 320
7.2.1 Restrictions and Key Criteria Relevant to Foods and Beverages 327
7.3 Pharmaceutical Packaging 332
7.3.1 Restrictions and Key Criteria Relevant to Therapeutics 340
7.4 Medical Device Packaging 347
7.4.1 Restrictions and Key Criteria Relevant to Devices 354
References 359
Section III Quality, Integrity, and Traceability 367
8 Suppliers and Manufacturers of Packaging 369
8.1 Introduction 370
8.2 Environmental Concerns and Sustainability 370
8.3 Recycling and After-Use 373
8.4 Tracing, Anti-Counterfeiting Technology, and Anti-Fraud Devices 388
8.4.1 Chemical Watermarks 391
8.4.2 Radiofrequency Identification and Tracking 393
8.4.3 Barcoding, Overt, and Covert Identifiers 394
8.4.4 History and Environmental Logging 399
8.4.4.1 Intelligent Packaging 404
8.5 Accelerated Testing 417
8.6 The Distribution Chain and Transport Logistics 431
8.7 Packaging Regulations and Guidelines 436
8.7.1 Labelling and Information 438
8.8 Safety, Health, and Practicality 442
8.8.1 New Trends and Opportunities 444
8.8.2 The Future 456
References 464
Section IV Revision and Information 475
Problems: Questions, Calculations, Estimates, and Dilemmas 477
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) 477
Short Answer Questions (SAQs);Worth 4 Marks 486
Very Short Answer Questions (VSAQs);Worth 2 Marks 487
Calculation Questions;Worth 20â"30 Marks 488
Calculation Questions;Worth 5 Marks 490
Answers to Problems 490
References 497
Appendices, Glossary of Terms, and Abbreviations 499
Glossary of Terms and Acronyms 499
Periodic Table of Chemical Elements and Fundamental Chemistry 501
Chemical Symbols and Abbreviations 504
Scientific and Engineering Symbols 505
Unit Prefixes 508
Index 509
