Series Preface xiii
Preface xv
List of Contributors xvii
1 Graphene Oxide for Electronics 1
Fenghua Liu, Lifeng Zhang, Lijian Wang, Binyuan Zhao and WeipingWu
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Synthesis and Characterizations of Graphene Oxide 2
1.2.1 Chemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO) 2
1.2.2 Microwave Method 2
1.2.3 Plasma Method 3
1.2.4 Laser Method 4
1.3 Energy Harvest Applications of Graphene Oxide 5
1.3.1 Solar Cells 5
1.3.2 Solar Thermal Energy Harvest Devices 7
1.4 Energy Storage Applications of Graphene Oxide 7
1.4.1 Supercapacitors 7
1.4.2 Batteries 10
1.5 Electronic Device Applications of Graphene Oxide 12
1.6 Large Area Electronics Applications of Graphene Oxide 13
References 16
2 Flexible and Wearable Graphene-Based E-Textiles 21
Nazmul Karim, Shaila Afroj, Damien Leech and Amr M. Abdelkader
2.1 Introduction to Wearable E-Textiles 21
2.2 Synthesis of Graphene Derivatives 22
2.2.1 Graphene Oxide 22
2.2.2 Reduced Graphene Oxide 24
2.3 Graphene-BasedWearable E-Textiles 25
2.3.1 Graphene-Based Textile Fibres 26
2.3.2 Graphene-Coated Textiles 27
2.3.3 Graphene-PrintedWearable E-Textiles 28
2.3.3.1 Screen Printing 30
2.3.3.2 Inkjet Printing 30
2.4 Surface Pre- and Post-Treatment of Substrates 32
2.5 Applications 34
2.5.1 Sensors 34
2.5.2 Supercapacitor 36
2.5.3 Rechargeable Batteries 38
2.5.4 Optoelectronics 39
2.6 Challenges and Outlook 40
References 41
3 Magnetic Interactions in the Cubic Mott Insulators NiO, MnO, and CoO and the Related Oxides CuO and FeO 51
David J. Lockwood andMichael G. Cottam
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Spinâ"Spin Interactions 52
3.2.1 Magnetic Ordering Below TN 52
3.2.2 Magnetostriction 53
3.2.3 Magnetic and Electronic Excitations 54
3.3 Spinâ"Phonon Interactions 59
3.3.1 Phonon and Magnon Temperature Dependences 60
3.3.2 Phonon Mode Splitting Below TN 62
3.4 Other Related Materials 64
3.4.1 Cupric Oxide 64
3.4.2 Iron Monoxide 65
3.5 Conclusions 68
Acknowledgments 68
References 68
4 High-ð Dielectric Oxides for Electronics 75
Tong Zhang, Xiaoyang Zhang, Yi Yang and WeipingWu
4.1 Introduction of High-ð Dielectric Oxides 75
4.1.1 Group IIIA Dielectric Oxides 77
4.1.2 Group IIIB High-ð Dielectric Oxides 77
4.1.3 Group IVB High-ð Dielectric Oxides 77
4.2 The Deposition of High-ð Oxide Dielectrics 78
4.3 High-ð Dielectric Oxides for Field-Effect Transistors 80
4.3.1 High-ð Dielectric Oxides for the MOSFETs 80
4.3.2 High-ð Dielectric Oxides for Tunnel Field-Effect Transistors 84
4.4 High-ð Dielectric Oxides for Memory Devices 85
4.4.1 High-ð Dielectric Oxides for DRAM 85
4.4.2 High-ð Dielectric Oxides for ReRAM 87
References 88
5 Low Temperature Growth of Germanium Oxide Nanowires by Template Based Self Assembly and their Raman Characterization 93
Raisa Fabiha, Abigail Casey, Gregory Triplett and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Synthesis 93
5.3 Characterization 96
5.4 Raman Measurements 96
5.5 Conclusion 98
References 99
6 Electronic Phenomena, Electroforming, Resistive Switching, and Defect Conduction Bands in Metal-Insulator-Metal Diodes 101
ThomasW. Hickmott
6.1 Introduction 101
6.2 Experimental 103
6.3 Electroforming, Electroluminescence, and Electron Emission 104
6.3.1 Electroforming of Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 104
6.3.2 Electroluminescence from Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 104
6.3.3 Electron Emission from Al-Al2O3-Ag Diodes 105
6.3.4 VCNR, EL, and EM in Other Insulators 107
6.3.5 Temperature Dependence of EM 108
6.4 Electrode Effects in Resistive Switching of Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 109
6.4.1 Resistive Switching in Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 109
6.4.2 Resistive Switching at Low Temperatures 109
6.4.3 Structure in I-V Curves of Electroformed Nb-Nb2O5-Metal Diodes 110
6.5 Conduction, Electroluminescence, and Photoconductivity Before Electroforming MIM Diodes 112
6.5.1 Conduction in Nb-Nb2O5-Au Diodes 112
6.5.2 Electroluminescence in Nb-Nb2O5-Au Diodes 112
6.5.3 Conduction and Electroluminescence in MIM Diodes with TiO2 and Ta2O5 115
6.5.4 Photoconductivity in MIM Diodes 115
6.6 Discussion 118
6.6.1 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Al2O3 119
6.6.2 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Nb2O5 121
6.6.3 Defect Conduction Bands in Amorphous Insulators 123
6.7 Summary and Conclusions 125
References 125
7 Lead Oxide as Material of Choice for Direct Conversion Detectors 129
Alla Reznik and Oleksii Semeniuk
7.1 Introduction 129
7.2 Crystal Structure and Electronic Properties of PbO 130
7.2.1 Crystal Structure of Tetragonal PbO (ð¼-PbO) 131
7.2.2 Crystal Structure of Orthorhombic PbO (ð½-PbO) 132
7.2.3 Electronic Properties of ð¼- and ð½-PbO 133
7.3 Deposition Process of PbO Layers 135
7.4 Charge Transport Mechanism in Lead Oxide 147
7.4.1 Electron Transport in poly-PbO 148
References 151
8 ZnO Varistors: From Grain Boundaries to Power Applications 157
Felix Greuter
8.1 Introduction 157
8.2 Manufacturing Process of ZnO Varistors 160
8.3 Microstructure and Grain Boundaries 162
8.4 Grain Boundary Potential Barriers 168
8.5 The âDouble Schottky Barrier Defect Modelâ 174
8.6 Hot Electron Effects Controlling the Breakdown Region 181
8.7 Hot Electron Effects and Dynamic Response 185
8.8 From Single Grain Boundaries to Microstructures and Varistor Devices 196
8.9 Ageing and Long-Term Stability of Varistor Materials 207
8.10 Energy Absorption Capability and High Current Impulse Stresses 218
8.11 Summary and Outlook 223
Acknowledgements 226
References 226
9 Fundamental Properties and Power Electronic Device Progress of Gallium Oxide 235
Xuanhu Chen, Chennupati Jagadish and Jiandong Ye
9.1 Introduction 235
9.2 Electronic Properties and Defects of Ga2O3 236
9.2.1 Bulk Crystals, Epitaxy, and nâ"type Doping 237
9.2.2 Electronic Band Structure and Feasibility of pâ"type Doping 240
9.2.3 Defect Behaviour in Bulk Crystals and Epitaxial Films 245
9.3 Basic Device Characteristics 250
9.3.1 Metal-Semiconductor Contact 250
9.3.1.1 Barrier Formation 250
9.3.1.2 Image-Force Lowering 252
9.3.1.3 Carrier Transport and Breakdown 254
9.3.2 Physics of Deep Depletion Ga2O3 MOSFETs 257
9.3.2.1 Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Capacitors 257
9.3.2.2 Basic Device Characteristics of DepletionMode MOSFETs Based on Ga2O3 270
9.3.2.3 Approaches to Enhancement-Mode ð½-Ga2O3 MOSFETs 280
9.3.3 Relevant Figure of Merit in Ga2O3 282
9.4 Ga2O3 Schottky Rectifiers 286
9.4.1 Edge Terminations 287
9.4.2 Ga2O3 Schottky Rectifiers 295
9.4.3 Ga2O3 p-n Heterojunction Diodes 301
9.5 Ga2O3 Transistors 307
9.5.1 Ohmic Contacts to Ga2O3 307
9.5.2 Dielectric Materials for Ga2O3 and MOSCaps 308
9.5.3 Lateral Ga2O3 FETs 313
9.5.4 ð½-Ga2O3 MODFETs 324
9.5.5 Vertical Ga2O3 MOSFETs 330
9.6 Summary 335
References 336
10 Emerging Trends, Challenges, and Applications in Solid-State Laser Cooling 353
Jyothis Thomas, LauroMaia, Yannick Ledemi, YounesMessaddeq and Raman Kashyap
10.1 Introduction 353
10.2 Theory 355
10.3 Experimental Design Considerations for Cooling 357
10.3.1 Experimental Setups Used for Solid-state Laser Cooling 357
10.3.1.1 Crystals 357
10.3.1.2 Glasses 358
10.3.1.3 Silica Glass Optical Fibres 360
10.3.1.4 Semiconductor Nanoribbons 361
10.3.2 Techniques to Analyse Background Absorption (ð¼b) Coefficient 361
10.3.3 Temperature Measurement Techniques in Solid-State Laser Cooling 362
10.3.3.1 Thermal Imaging 362
10.3.3.2 Photoluminescence (PL)Thermometry 363
10.3.3.3 Temperature Measurement Using Fibre Bragg Gratings 363
10.3.3.4 Thermocouples 364
10.3.3.5 Photothermal Deflection Spectroscopy (PTDS) 364
10.3.3.6 Interferometric Technique 364
10.4 Laser Cooling Materials and Properties 365
10.4.1 Crystals 366
10.4.2 Semiconductors 368
10.4.3 Optical Fibres 370
10.4.4 Nanocrystalline Powders 371
10.5 Oxyfluoride Glass-Ceramics: Recent Developments in Solid-State Laser Cooling 373
10.5.1 Earth-Doped Oxyfluoride Pseudo-Binary Glasses and Glass-Ceramics for Optical Refrigeration 375
10.5.1.1 Materials and Methods 376
10.5.1.2 Results and Discussion 376
10.5.1.3 Summary on Pseudo-Binary Oxyfluoride Glass Ceramics 381
10.6 Optical Cryocooler Devices 382
10.7 Future Prospects and Conclusions 386
Acknowledgements 388
References 388
11 ElectrodeMaterials for Sodium Ion Rechargeable Batteries 397
TaniaMajumder, Anwesa Mukherjee, Debasish Das and S.B.Majumder
11.1 Introduction â" Review of the Constituents Used in Na â" Ion Cells 397
11.2 Cathode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells 397
11.2.1 Transition Metal Oxides with Layered Structure 397
11.2.2 Prussian Blue Analogue 398
11.2.3 Sodium Superionic Conductors (NASICON) 399
11.2.4 Other Cathodes 400
11.3 Current Collectors, Binder, and Electrolyte 400
11.4 Anode Materials for Na Ion Rechargeable Cells 401
11.4.1 Carbonaceous Materials 401
11.4.2 Alloying Type Anodes 401
11.4.3 Conversion Type Anodes 402
11.4.4 Other Anodes 402
11.5 Outstanding Research Issues and Statement of the Problem 402
11.6 Synthesis and Electrochemical Characterization of Electrodes 404
11.6.1 Ilmenite NiTiO3 as Anode 404
11.6.1.1 Synthesis and Characterization 404
11.6.2 Electrochemical Characterization 404
11.6.3 Electrophoretic Deposition of NiTiO3-Based Anode 406
11.6.4 Electrochemical Performance of EPD Grown NTO Anodes 408
11.7 Na2Ti3O7 as Anode 409
11.7.1 Synthesis and Characterization 409
11.7.2 Electrochemical Characterization of Pristine NaTO 410
11.7.3 Electrochemical Performance of Carbon-Coated NaTO Anode 411
11.7.4 Electrochemical Performance of NaTO/rGO Composite Anode 413
11.8 PBA as Cathode 414
11.8.1 Nickel Hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF) 415
11.8.2 Iron Hexacyanoferrate (FeHCF) 417
11.9 Summary and Conclusions 418
Acknowledgement 419
References 419
12 Perovskites for Photovoltaics 423
Hooman Mehdizadeh Rad, David Ompong and Jai Singh
12.1 Introduction 423
12.2 Diffusion Length 424
12.2.1 Methodology 425
12.2.2 Results of Simulated Diffusion Length and Discussions 427
12.3 Open-Circuit Voltage 432
12.3.1 Results of Open-Circuit Voltage and Discussions 433
12.3.2 Bimolecular Recombination 436
12.4 Influence of Density of Tail States at Interfaces 437
12.4.1 Methods 437
12.4.2 Results of Density of States and Discussions 441
12.5 Conclusions 444
References 447
13 Advanced Characterizations of Oxides for Optoelectronic Applications 453
U. Onwukwe, L. Anguilano and P. Sermon
13.1 A Brief History of Optoelectronic Devices 453
13.1.1 Semiconductors 454
13.1.1.1 n-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors 455
13.1.1.2 p-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors 456
13.2 Interaction of Semiconductors and the Optoelectronic Phenomenon 457
13.2.1 Direct Band Gap Semiconductors 457
13.2.1.1 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors 458
13.2.2 Oxides for Optoelectronics: Introduction 459
13.2.3 Major Types of MO for Optoelectronics 460
13.2.3.1 ITO 460
13.2.3.2 ZnO 460
13.2.3.3 AZO 461
13.2.3.4 IGZO 461
13.2.3.5 Perovskite Oxides 462
13.2.3.6 Reduced Graphene Oxide-Miscellaneous Materials 463
13.2.4 Method of Preparation of Optoelectronic Structures 467
13.2.4.1 Nanowires/Nanorods 467
13.2.4.2 Thin Films 467
13.2.4.3 Mixed Morphologies Fabrication 468
13.3 Characterization Techniques and their Use for Metal Oxide Optoelectronics 470
13.3.1 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) 470
13.3.2 Fourier-Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) 471
13.3.2.1 Raman Spectroscopy 473
13.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 475
13.3.4 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 477
13.3.5 Luminescence Techniques 480
13.3.6 X-Ray Diffraction 482
13.4 Facilities and Case Studies 484
13.4.1 Case Study I â" Leaf Biotemplate Derived TiO2 485
References 488
14 Future Tuning Optoelectronic Oxides from the Inside: Sol-Gel (TiO2)x-(SiO2)100-x 497
M.P.Worsley, J.G. Leadley, R.M.A. MacGibbon, T. Salvesen, P.A. Sermon and J.M. Charnock
14.1 Introduction and Background 497
14.1.1 Photons and Wavetrains 497
14.1.2 Optoelectronic Oxides and Devices 497
14.1.3 TiO2 498
14.1.4 TiO2-SiO2 498
14.1.5 Alkoxide and Sol-Gel Routes to TiO2-SiO2 500
14.1.6 Miscibility and the % TiO2 (x) Added in TiO2-SiO2 500
14.1.7 Doping of TiO2-SiO2 501
14.1.8 Local Structure in TiO2-SiO2 501
14.2 Hypothesis 503
14.3 Experimental 504
14.3.1 Materials 504
14.3.2 Preparations 504
14.3.3 Characterization Methods 504
14.4 Characterization Results 505
14.5 Discussion on Future Automated CALPHAD Design, Dip-Coating Mechanical, and High-Throughput Screening of Novel Optoelectronic Oxides and Devices 510
14.6 Conclusions on TiO2-SiO2 Use 510
Acknowledgements 513
References 513
15 Binary Calcia-Alumina Thin Films: Synthesis and Properties and Applications 525
Asim K. Ray
15.1 Introduction 525
15.2 Structural and Physical Properties of C12A7 526
15.2.1 Thermal Stability 528
15.2.2 Ionic Conductivity and Mechanisms of Oxideâ"Ion Migration 529
15.3 Atomic and Electronic Structure 530
15.3.1 Synthesis of C12A7 531
15.3.2 Single Powders 531
15.3.3 Single Crystal 532
15.3.4 Polycrystalline Bulk 533
15.3.5 Thin Film 535
15.3.6 Ion Doping in C12A7 536
15.3.6.1 Heat Treatment in H2 Atmosphere 537
15.3.6.2 Thermoelectricity 537
15.4 Optical Properties 540
15.4.1 Reflectivity 541
15.4.2 Luminescence 542
15.5 Applications of C12A7 543
15.6 Summary 545
Acknowledgements 546
References 546
16 Oxide Cathodes 553
Ian Alberts
16.1 Historical Aspects 553
16.1.1 The Edison Effect 555
16.1.2 ArthurWehnelt 555
16.1.3 Thermionic Emission Research in the Early Twentieth Century 556
16.1.4 Oxide Cathodes for the CRT 556
16.2 Physics of Thermionic Emission 557
16.2.1 Derivation of the Richardson-Dushman Equation 558
16.2.2 Space Charge and the Child-Langmuir Law 559
16.3 Oxide Cathode Development 560
16.3.1 The Barium-Coated Cathode 561
16.3.2 The Rise and Subsequent Fall of the Impregnated Cathode 562
16.3.3 Cermet Cathodes 565
16.3.4 State of the Art 565
16.4 Future Trends and Ongoing Applications 567
16.4.1 Vacuum X-Ray Tubes 568
16.4.2 Military Telecommunications 568
16.4.3 Klystrons 570
16.4.4 Gyrotron 571
16.4.5 Thermionic Energy Conversion 571
16.4.6 Triboelectric Nanogenerators 573
16.4.7 Frontiers in Thermionic Research: Vacuum Nanoelectronics 575
16.4.8 Field Emission Displays (FED) 575
16.5 Conclusion 577
References 577
Index 583
