| Review of Composition Software | p. 1 |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| General Principles for Using Computers in Writing Instruction | p. 1 |
| The Need to Consult Educational Goals and Methods | p. 2 |
| Categories of Writing Tutor Programs Currently Available | p. 5 |
| Conferencing-Type Tutors | p. 7 |
| Tutors Based on Text-Analysis | p. 7 |
| Tutors Based on Heuristics or Invention Strategies | p. 7 |
| Text or Revision Tools | p. 7 |
| Organisers | p. 8 |
| Process-Based Tutors | p. 8 |
| Features of a Versatile Writing Tutor Program | p. 12 |
| Conclusion | p. 13 |
| Critical Realism | p. 15 |
| Introduction | p. 15 |
| Overview of Critical Realism | p. 15 |
| Critical Realism as Investigative Orientation | p. 17 |
| Criticisms of Critical Realism | p. 20 |
| Fallacies in Critical Realism | p. 22 |
| The Epistemic/Linguistic Fallacy | p. 22 |
| The Theory-Determinant Fallacy | p. 23 |
| Critical Realism and Literacy | p. 24 |
| Critical Realism and Composition | p. 27 |
| The Nature of the "User's Model" of Composing | p. 30 |
| Use of the Term "Discourse" in This Study | p. 31 |
| Conclusion | p. 34 |
| The Modelling Process | p. 37 |
| Introduction | p. 37 |
| The Nature of Theory | p. 37 |
| The Relationship Between Theory and Practice | p. 39 |
| The Use of Theory in This Study | p. 40 |
| The Relationship Between Theory and Models | p. 41 |
| The Models Produced in This Study | p. 43 |
| Franck's Modelling Process | p. 45 |
| The Nature of Social Mechanisms | p. 48 |
| Contingent and Intentional Causality | p. 49 |
| Validation of the Models | p. 52 |
| Video Protocol Analysis | p. 54 |
| Generalizability of the Theoretical Model | p. 55 |
| Interplay Between Data and Theory | p. 56 |
| Stratification in the Inquiry Process | p. 57 |
| Cycles of Modelling Involved | p. 58 |
| First Cycle of Modelling (Masters Research) | p. 60 |
| Second Cycle of Modelling | p. 60 |
| Third Cycle of Modelling | p. 61 |
| Conclusion | p. 62 |
| The User's Model of Composing | p. 65 |
| Introduction | p. 65 |
| The Property of the Social System | p. 65 |
| The Phenomenon of Composing | p. 67 |
| The "Property of the System" Involved in Composing | p. 69 |
| The Functions Performed in Composing | p. 69 |
| The Mechanism Involved in Composing | p. 71 |
| The Empirical Model of Composing | p. 72 |
| Background to the Formulation of the Model | p. 72 |
| The Concept of a "User's Model" | p. 73 |
| The "Stages of the Writing Process" Model | p. 74 |
| Application of the First Empirical Model | p. 78 |
| Interfacing Composition Software with Word Processors | p. 78 |
| The Issue of Social Context | p. 79 |
| The Lack of a Theoretical Underpinning to the Model | p. 79 |
| The User's Model as a Description of Real Life Composing | p. 80 |
| Conclusion | p. 81 |
| Testing Out the User's Model | p. 83 |
| Introduction | p. 83 |
| The Video Protocol Analysis Method | p. 84 |
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Video Protocols | p. 86 |
| Composing Profile Graphs | p. 87 |
| Confirmation of Phases in Composing | p. 88 |
| Description of the Phases | p. 89 |
| Confirmation of the Stages in the Empirical Model | p. 92 |
| The Emerging Picture of Composing | p. 93 |
| Key Issues Emerging from the Video Protocols | p. 101 |
| The Process Approach | p. 102 |
| Origins and Focus of the Process Approach | p. 102 |
| Relevance of the Process Approach to L1 and L2 Writers | p. 103 |
| Research into Composing Processes | p. 103 |
| The View of Writing Built Up from Process Research | p. 104 |
| The Process Approach to Teaching Composition | p. 104 |
| Criticisms of the Process Approach | p. 105 |
| The Interpersonal Context of the Process Approach | p. 105 |
| Approaches Which Set Academic Writing in Its Social Context | p. 106 |
| Writing as the Social Construction of Knowledge | p. 107 |
| The Textual Focus of Social Approaches to Writing | p. 107 |
| The Paradigms Involved in Knowledge Construction | p. 111 |
| Modifications Required to the Model | p. 112 |
| The Developing View of the User's Model | p. 114 |
| Conclusion | p. 115 |
| The Theoretical Model of Composing | p. 117 |
| Introduction | p. 117 |
| The Theoretical Model as Primary System | p. 117 |
| Reformulation of the Property of the System | p. 119 |
| Factors Contributing to the Formulation of the Theoretical Model | p. 119 |
| The System of Communicative Functions | p. 125 |
| The Theoretical Model as Generalizable Principle | p. 128 |
| The Formulation of a Second Empirical Model of Composing | p. 129 |
| Validating the Models | p. 132 |
| Composing as a Special Case of Communication | p. 134 |
| The Effects of Distancing on the Communicative Functions | p. 134 |
| Types of Distancing Occurring in Communication | p. 136 |
| Effects of Crafting on Communication in Written Mode | p. 138 |
| The Property of the System of Functions Underpinning Communication | p. 141 |
| The Picture of Composing Emerging from the Modelling Process | p. 143 |
| Rationale for Current Approaches to the Teaching of Written Composition | p. 144 |
| Conclusion | p. 145 |
| The Explanatory Force of the Models | p. 147 |
| Introduction | p. 147 |
| The Meaning of "Validation" in This Study | p. 148 |
| Issues Explored in the Video Protocols | p. 149 |
| Interpreting Composing Using the Model | p. 151 |
| Analysis of Data from the Video Protocols | p. 152 |
| The Explanatory Force of the Empirical Model | p. 154 |
| The General Configuration of the Model Confirmed | p. 155 |
| Previous Exceptions Accommodated by the New Model | p. 158 |
| The Influence of Extra-Systemic Factors on Composing | p. 159 |
| Intra-systemic Variation in Composing | p. 165 |
| Diagnosis of Problems Experienced by Writers | p. 168 |
| Conclusion | p. 170 |
| The Writing Tutor Program | p. 171 |
| Introduction | p. 171 |
| The Aim of Developing the Writing Tutor Program | p. 171 |
| The Process-Based Writing Tutor Program Developed in This Study | p. 172 |
| The Production of the Writing Tutor Program | p. 173 |
| Design Principles and Specifications | p. 174 |
| Basic Programming Specifications | p. 175 |
| The Theoretical Model and Educational Program Design | p. 176 |
| Contextualising Learning in Course Design | p. 176 |
| Ideational Content in Course Design | p. 176 |
| Interactive Aspects of Course Design | p. 177 |
| Social Aspects of Course Design | p. 177 |
| Reflexive Aspects of Course Design | p. 178 |
| Computer Human Interface Aspects of the Writing Tutor Program | p. 178 |
| The Prototype Writing Tutor Program | p. 179 |
| Design Features of the Completed Prototype | p. 181 |
| General Operating Principles | p. 181 |
| Translating the Stages of Composing into Menu Items | p. 181 |
| Prompts and Screen Displays | p. 184 |
| Other Main Menu Items | p. 184 |
| Customising the Program to Suit Various Contexts | p. 185 |
| Anticipated Program Enhancements | p. 186 |
| User Response to the Writing Tutor Program | p. 187 |
| Some Overall Impressions from Student Users | p. 187 |
| Improvements Suggested by Students | p. 190 |
| Conclusion | p. 191 |
| Conclusion | p. 193 |
| Glossary | p. 205 |
| Bibliography | p. 213 |
| Index | p. 223 |
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