Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Definitions of Major Components of Climate Crisis 4
1.2 Impact of Structural Systems on a Construction Product's Carbon Footprint 14
1.3 Role of Construction Materials in the Climate Crisis 17
1.4 Role of Structural Engineers and Architects in Climate Action 18
1.5 Regulatory Push for Decarbonization 22
1.6 Life-cycle-driven Structures Framework 24
1.7 Conclusion 26
1.8 Questions 27
2 A Summary of Life-cycle Assessment Focusing on Embodied Carbon of Steel, Timber, and Concrete 35
2.1 Product-level vs Building-level Life-cycle Assessment 37
2.2 Declared and Functional Units, Functional Equivalent, and Reference Study Period 37
2.3 Defining the Scope and System Boundaries 38
2.4 LCA Reporting and Environmental Impact Indicators 40
2.5 The Stages of Life-cycle Assessment for Building Structures 43
2.6 Upfront Carbon (A1 to A3) for Steel, Concrete, and Timber Construction Products 45
2.7 Construction Stage Carbon for Building Structures (A4 to A5) 77
2.8 End-of-life Stages 87
2.9 Beyond the Life Cycle (D) 92
2.10 Conclusion 94
2.11 Questions 94
3 Measuring and Reducing Embodied Carbon in Structures 103
3.1 Embodied Carbon Equation 104
3.2 Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) 109
3.3 Embodied Carbon Variability Across Construction Products 117
3.4 Normalizing Embodied Carbon (Embodied Carbon Intensity) 128
3.5 Ten Strategies for Reducing Embodied Carbon in Construction 138
3.6 Exercise: Embodied Carbon Calculation of Structural Elements Under Different Conditions and Assumptions 150
3.7 Conclusion 172
3.8 Questions 172
4 Life-cycle Parameter Analysis (LCPA) at Component Level 183
4.1 Principles of Parameter Analysis 185
4.2 Combining Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) and Parameter Analysis: Life-cycle Parameter Analysis (LCPA) 186
4.3 Case Study: Columns (Steel, Timber, Reinforced Concrete, Composite) 187
4.4 Case Study: Beams (IPE, HEA, Truss, Steel, Timber, Reinforced Concrete) 209
4.5 Integrating Cost, Durability, and Fire Resistance into LCPA 231
4.6 Conclusion 232
4.7 Questions 233
5 Life-cycle Parameter Analysis (LCPA) at Building Level 243
5.1 Why Does Optioneering Matter During the Structural Conceptual Design? 244
5.2 Benchmark Case Study: Two Multistory Building Configurations (Reinforced Concrete and Steel) 245
5.3 Early Stage Design Alternatives Using Representative Portions 253
5.4 The Impact of Tubular Profiles and Higher-strength Steel on the Embodied Carbon 261
5.5 Influence of the Carbon Factors on the Final Results 271
5.6 What If We Use a Hybrid Approach Combining CLT Slabs with a Steel Frame? 281
5.7 How to Account for Uncertainty of Carbon Factors? 295
5.8 Conclusion 296
5.9 Questions 297
6 Life-cycle Optimization (LCO) 303
6.1 Key Decisions to be Given at a Conceptual Design of Building Structures 306
6.2 From Life-cycle Parameter Analysis (LCPA) to Life-cycle Optimization (LCO) 311
6.3 Description of an LCO Conceptual Design Method and Its Applications 314
6.4 A Parametric Study on Key Design Variables Using Life-cycle Optimization 336
6.5 Future Trends of a Data-driven Conceptual Design 348
6.6 Questions 349
7 Life-cycle-driven Seismic Design, Construction, Retrofitting, and Assessment 355
7.1 Seismic Design Philosophies in Relation to Life-cycle Thinking 359
7.2 Role of Construction Materials on Seismic Design with Life-cycle Thinking 378
7.3 Resilience of Nonstructural Elements Under Earthquakes 380
7.4 Seismic Retrofitting of Existing Building Stock 381
7.5 The Influence of Seismic Design Codes on Sustainable and Resilient Structures 385
7.6 Earthquakes and Community Resilience 388
7.7 Rapid, Low-cost, and Low-impact Post-earthquake Assessment 389
7.8 Conclusion 399
7.9 Questions 401
8 Real-world Applications of Life-cycle-driven Structures 413
8.1 How to Read the Case Studies 418
8.2 Adaptive Reuse and Circular Construction 419
8.3 Material Efficiency and High-tech Solutions 449
8.4 Hybrid, Composite, and Modular Systems 468
8.5 Regenerative Design in Harsh Soil and Seismic Conditions 503
8.6 Resilient Infrastructure Design 535
8.7 Conclusion 573
8.8 Questions 575
9 Concluding Remarks 585
9.1 What We Have Established 585
9.2 What Remains to Be Done 588
9.3 A Final Word 590
Annex 1: Life-cycle-driven Structural Design 591
Annex 2: Global Regulatory Mapping of Embodied Carbon in Buildings 595
Annex 3: Life-cycle-driven Structures 617
Annex 4: Using This Book with Generative AI 625
Index 629
