Introduction Physical Geography and the Tools Geographers Use 2
Introducing Geography 4
Spheres, Systems, and Cycles 10
Physical Geography, Environment, and Global Change 13
Tools in Physical Geography 15
Maps and Cartography 17
The Global Positioning System 21
Geographic Information Systems 22
Remote Sensing for Physical Geography 24
Earth Visualization Tools 30
A Look Ahead 33
Chapter 1 The Earth as a Rotating Planet 36
The Shape of the Earth 38
The Earth’s Rotation 39
The Geographic Grid 40
Map Projections 42
Global Time 46
The Earth’s Revolution Around the Sun 49
A Look Ahead 54
Chapter 2 The Earth’s Global Energy Balance 56
Eye on Global Change: The Ozone Layer— Shield to Life 58
Electromagnetic Radiation 59
Insolation over the Globe 63
Composition of the Atmosphere 69
Energy Transfer 69
The Global Energy System 70
Net Radiation, Latitude, and the Energy Balance 75
Focus on Remote Sensing
A Look Ahead 79
Chapter 3 Air Temperature 82
Eye on Global Change: Carbon Dioxide—On the Increase 84
Surface and Air Temperature 85
Temperature Structure of the Atmosphere 93
Daily and Annual Cycles of Air Temperature 95
World Patterns of Air Temperature 99
The Temperature Record and Global Warming 103
A Look Ahead 109
Chapter 4 Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation 112
Eye on Global Change: Acid Deposition 114
Water in the Environment 114
Humidity 120
Adiabatic Processes 122
Clouds and Fog 124
Focus on Remote Sensing
Precipitation 128
Types of Precipitation 134
Thunderstorms 137
Tornadoes 140
Air Quality 143
A Look Ahead 147
Chapter 5 Winds and Global Circulation 150
Eye on Global Change: El Nino 152
Atmospheric Pressure 153
Wind 155
Cyclones and Anticyclones 159
Global Wind and Pressure Patterns 162
Winds Aloft 166
Ocean Circulation 172
A Look Ahead 180
Chapter 6 Weather Systems 184
Eye on Global Change: Cloud Cover, Precipitation, and Global Warming 186
Air Masses and Fronts 187
Midlatitude Anticyclones and Cyclones 193
Tropical and Equatorial Weather Systems 203
Focus on Remote Sensing
Poleward Transport of Energy and Moisture 213
A Look Ahead 215
Chapter 7 Global Climates and Climate Change 218
Eye on Global Change: Drought in the African Sahel 220
Keys to Climate 222
Climate Classification 225
Low-Latitude Climates (Group I) 231
Midlatitude Climates (Group II) 241
High-Latitude Climates (Group III) 249
Climate Change 253
A Look Ahead 256
Special Supplement: The Koppen Climate System 260
Chapter 8 Biogeographic Processes 264
Eye on Global Change: Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle 266
Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems 268
Ecological Biogeography 276
Ecological Succession 284
Focus on Remote Sensing
Historical Biogeography 288
Biodiversity 296
A Look Ahead 298
Chapter 9 Global Biogeography 302
Eye on Global Change: Exploitation of the Low-Latitude Rainforest Ecosystem 304
Natural Vegetation 305
Terrestrial Ecosystems—The Biomes 308
Forest Biome 313
Savanna and Grassland Biomes 323
Desert and Tundra Biomes 328
Focus on Remote Sensing
Climate and Altitude Gradients 336
A Look Ahead 338
Chapter 10 Global Soils 340
Eye on Global Change: Global Change and Agriculture 342
The Nature of the Soil 344
Soil Chemistry 348
Soil Moisture 350
Soil Development 352
The Global Scope of Soils 357
A Look Ahead 370
Chapter 11 Earth Materials and Plate Tectonics 374
The Changing Earth 377
The Structure of the Earth 379
Earth Materials and the Cycle of Rock Change 381
Global Topography 391
Focus on Remote Sensing
Plate Tectonics 398
A Look Ahead 409
Chapter 12 Tectonic and Volcanic Landforms 414
Eye on Global Change: The Great Tohoku Earthquake of 2011 416
Tectonic Landforms 416
Earthquakes 426
Volcanic Activity and Landforms 431
Focus on Remote Sensing
A Look Ahead 441
Chapter 13 Weathering and Mass Wasting 444
Eye on Global Change: The Madison Slide 446
Weathering 448
Slopes and Slope Processes 453
Mass Wasting 454
A Look Ahead 462
Chapter 14 Freshwater of the Continents 464
Eye on Global Change: The Aral Sea 466
Freshwater and the Hydrologic Cycle 468
Groundwater 470
Groundwater Use and Management 476
Surface Water and Streamflow 478
Flooding 484
Lakes 487
Freshwater as a Natural Resource 491
A Look Ahead 495
Chapter 15 Landforms Made by Running Water 498
Erosion, Transportation, and Deposition 500
Stream Gradation and Evolution 506
Focus on Remote Sensing
Fluvial Landforms 515
Fluvial Processes in an Arid Climate 518
A Look Ahead 523
Chapter 16 Landforms Made by Waves and Wind 526
Eye on Global Change: Global Change and Coastal Environments 528
The Work of Waves and Tides 530
Coastal Landforms 537
Wind Action 547
Eolian Landforms 551
A Look Ahead 557
Chapter 17 Glacial and Periglacial Landforms 560
Eye on Global Change: Ice Sheets, Sea Ice, and Global Warming 562
Types of Glaciers 564
Glacial Processes 567
Glacial Landforms 569
Focus on Remote Sensing
Periglacial Processes and Landforms 578
Global Climate and Glaciation 582
A Look Ahead 586
Appendix 1 Climate Definitions and Boundaries 591
Appendix 2 Conversion Factors 592
Appendix 3 Topographic Map Symbols 593
Glossary 595
Illustration Credits 623
Index 625
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