Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction xv
1 A Little Piece of History¢¦ 1
1.1 The First Age of Navigation 1
1.2 Longitude Problem and Importance of Time 2
1.3 Link Between Time and Space 4
1.3.1 A Brief History of the Evolution of the Perception of Time 4
1.3.2 Comparison with the Possible Change in Our Perception of Space 6
1.4 The Radio Age 8
1.5 First Terrestrial Positioning Systems 9
1.6 The Era of Artificial Satellites 11
1.6.1 GPS System 13
1.7 New Problem: Availability and Accuracy of Positioning Systems 14
Bibliography 15
2 What Exactly Is the Indoor Positioning Problem? 17
2.1 General Introduction to Indoor Positioning 18
2.1.1 Basic Problem: Example of the Navigation Application 19
2.1.2 The ¢Perceived¢ Needs 20
2.1.3 Wide Range of Possible Technologies 22
2.1.4 Comments on the ¢Best¢ Solution 25
2.1.4.1 Local or Global Coverage 26
2.1.4.2 With orWithout Local Infrastructure 27
2.2 Is Indoor Positioning the Next ¢Longitude Problem¢? 27
2.3 Quick Summary of the Indoor Problem 30
Bibliography 31
3 General Introduction to Positioning Techniques and Their Associated Difficulties 33
3.1 Angle-Based Positioning Technique 33
3.1.1 Pure Angle-Based Positioning Technique 33
3.1.2 Triangulation-Based Positioning Technique 34
3.2 Distance-Based Positioning Technique 35
3.2.1 Distances to Known Environment-Based Positioning Technique 35
3.2.2 Radar Method 36
3.2.3 Hyperbolic Method 38
3.2.4 Mobile Telecommunication Networks 38
3.3 Doppler-Based Positioning Approach 40
3.3.1 Doppler Radar Method 40
3.3.2 Doppler Positioning Approach 41
3.4 Physical Quantity-Based Positioning Approaches 42
3.4.1 Luminosity Measurements 42
3.4.2 Local Networks 42
3.4.3 Attitude and Heading Reference System 45
3.4.3.1 Accelerometers 46
3.4.3.2 Gyrometers 47
3.4.3.3 Odometers 47
3.4.3.4 Magnetometers 48
3.5 Image-Based Positioning Approach 49
3.6 ILS, MLS, VOR, and DME 49
3.7 Summary 51
Bibliography 52
4 Various Possible Classifications of Indoor Technologies 55
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Parameters to Be Considered 56
4.3 Discussion About These Parameters 57
4.3.1 Parameters Related to the Hardware of the System 57
4.3.2 Parameters Related to the Type and Performances of the System 58
4.3.3 Parameters Related to the Real Implementation of the System 59
4.3.4 Parameters Related to the Physical Aspects of the System 60
4.4 Technologies Considered 63
4.5 Complete Tables 71
4.6 Playing with the Complete Table 79
4.7 Selected Approach for the Rest of the Book 88
Bibliography 99
5 Proximity Technologies: Approaches, Performance, and Limitations 103
5.1 Bar Codes 103
5.2 Contactless Cards and Credit Cards 107
5.3 Image Recognition 109
5.4 Near-Field Communication ¢" NFC 112
5.5 QR Codes 114
5.6 Discussion of Other Technologies 117
Bibliography 118
6 Room-Restricted Technologies: Challenges and Reliability 121
6.1 Image Markers 121
6.2 Infrared Sensors 129
6.3 Laser 130
6.4 Lidar 133
6.5 Sonar 136
6.6 Ultrasound Sensors 138
Bibliography 140
7 ¢Set of Rooms¢ Technologies 145
7.1 Radar 145
7.2 RFID 149
7.3 UWB 152
Bibliography 156
8 Building Range Technologies 159
8.1 Accelerometer 159
8.2 Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy 163
8.3 Gyrometer 167
8.4 Image-Relative Displacement 169
8.5 Image SLAM 171
8.6 LiFi 171
8.7 Light Opportunity 174
8.8 Sound 176
8.9 Theodolite 177
8.10 WiFi 180
8.11 Symbolic WiFi 182
Bibliography 187
9 Building Range Technologies: The Specific Case of Indoor GNSS 191
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Concept of Local Transmitters 193
9.3 Pseudolites 194
9.4 Repeaters 198
9.4.1 Clock Bias Approach 199
9.4.2 Pseudo Ranges Approach 202
9.4.2.1 Theoretical Aspects 202
9.5 Repealites 206
9.5.1 Proposed System Architecture 206
9.5.2 Advantages 208
9.5.3 Limitations 209
9.6 Grin-Locs 209
9.6.1 Double Antenna 210
9.6.1.1 Angle Approach 210
9.6.1.2 Quadrics Approach 211
9.6.2 Resolution in Case of Several Double Antennas 213
9.6.2.1 Positioning with the Angle Approach 213
9.6.2.2 Positioning with the Quadric Approach 214
Bibliography 216
10 Wide Area Indoor Positioning: Block, City, and County Approaches 223
10.1 Introduction 223
10.2 Amateur Radio 225
10.3 ISM Radio Bands (433/868/¢¦MHz) 226
10.4 Mobile Networks 227
10.4.1 First Networks (GSM) 227
10.4.2 Modern Networks (3G, 4G, and 5G) 232
10.5 LoRa and SigFox 234
10.6 AM/FM Radio 236
10.7 TV 237
Bibliography 239
11 Worldwide Indoor Positioning Technologies: Achievable Performance 241
11.1 Argos and COSPAS-SARSAT Systems 241
11.1.1 Argos System 241
11.1.2 COSPAS-SARSAT System 244
11.2 GNSS 246
11.3 High-Accuracy GNSS 248
11.3.1 HS-GNSS 249
11.3.2 A-GNSS 251
11.4 Magnetometer 253
11.5 Pressure Sensor 256
11.6 Radio Signals of Opportunity 258
11.7 Wired Networks 259
Bibliography 261
12 Combining Techniques and Technologies 267
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 Fusion and Hybridization 269
12.2.1 Strategies for Combining Technologies 269
12.2.2 Strategies for Choosing the Optimal Data 270
12.2.2.1 Least Squares Method 273
12.2.3 Classification and Estimators 274
12.2.4 Filtering 275
12.3 Collaborative Approaches 276
12.3.1 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Velocities 276
12.3.2 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements in Case Some Nodes Are Fixed 280
12.3.3 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Angles 282
12.3.4 Approach Using Distance Measurements 285
12.3.5 Approach Analyzing the Deformation of the Network 287
12.3.6 Comments 288
12.4 General Discussion 290
Bibliography 291
13 Maps 295
13.1 Map: Not Just an Image 296
13.2 Indoor Poses Specific Problems 297
13.3 Map Representations 298
13.4 Recording Tools 301
13.5 Some Examples of the Use of Indoor Mapping 304
13.5.1 Some Guiding Applications 305
13.5.2 Some Services Associated with Mapping 306
13.6 Synthesis 308
Bibliography 308
14 Synthesis and Possible Forthcoming ¢Evolution¢ 311
14.1 Indoor Positioning: Signals of Opportunity or Local Infrastructure? 312
14.1.1 A Few Constrained Selections 312
14.1.2 Comparison of Three Approaches and Discussion 315
14.1.2.1 Inverted GNSS Radar 315
14.1.2.2 NFC-Distributed System and Its Map 316
14.1.2.3 Cooperative Approach Between Communicating Terminals 317
14.2 Discussion 319
14.3 Possible Evolution of Everybody¢s Daily Life 321
14.3.1 Student¢s Day 321
14.3.1.1 Morning Session at the University 322
14.3.2 Improving an Outpatient¢s Visit to Hospital 323
14.3.2.1 Preparation of the ¢Journeys¢ 323
14.3.2.2 Displacements of Patients and Automatic Rescheduling 323
14.3.2.3 Reports ¢" Analytics 323
14.3.3 Flow of People in Public Places 325
14.4 Internet of Things and Internet of Everything 326
14.5 Possible Future Approaches 327
14.6 Conclusion 330
Bibliography 331
Index 333
