Preface
1 Natural Resources: Thoughts, Words, and Deeds 1
What is a Natural Resource? 1
Resource Cognition and Value 1
Kinds of Resources 4
Limits to Resource Classification 5
Conserving Resources: What Does It Mean? 5
ISSUE 1.1: Two Contrasting Views of Natural Resource Management 6
Environmental Ethics 8
Environmental Justice 8
What Values Do You Bring to the Natural Resources Debate? 8
Nature, Economics, and The Politics of Natural Resource Use 9
The Systems Approach 10
General Outline of the Book 11
References and Additional Reading 12
Study Questions 13
2 Economics of Natural Resources 14
Introduction 14
Economics and the Use of Resources 15
Characteristics of Natural Resources 15
Pricing Systems 17
Economic Systems 17
Supply and Demand 18
Market Imperfections 18
Determining Resource Value: Quantifying the Intangibles 19
Benefit-Cost Analysis 19
ISSUE 2.1: European Integration and the Environment: EEA and EIONET 20
Quantifying Value 21
ISSUE 2.2: What Is the Value of a Human Life? 22
Management and Allocation of Resources 24
Ownership 24
Social Costs 27
Economics of the Individual Firm 28
Business and the Environment: Recent Trends 29
Diversification and Multinational Corporations 29
ISSUE 2.3: The Value of Nature 30
The Greening of Business 32
Deregulation 33
Conclusions 33
References and Additional Reading 34
Study Questions 35
3 Environmental History, Politics, and Decision- Making 30
Introduction 36
Natural Resource Use: A Historical Perspective 36
Development of Natural Resource Policy 37
U.S. Environmental Policy 37
International Policy 45
ISSUE: 3.1: In Fairness to All: Agenda 21
and Environmental Equity 48
Current Natural Resource Policy 49
How Decisions Are Made 50
Resource Decision-Making in the United States 50
International Environmental Decision-Making 51
ISSUE: 3.2: Politics and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) 52
The Decision-Making Process 54
Organizations 54
Strategies 55
The Role of Public Interest 56
The âNewâ Environmental Politics 57
References and Additional Reading 58
Study Questions 60
4 Ecologic Perspectives on Natural Resources 61
Earthâs Resource Environments 61
Bioregions 62
Human Use of the Land 66
ISSUE 4.1: What Happens When the Geography Changes? 67
Energy Transfers and Material Flows 69
Carbon Cycle 70
ISSUE 4.2: Silent Spring versus Our Stolen Future 71
Nitrogen and Phosphorus 72
Hydrologic Cycle 73
Food Chains 74
Carrying Capacity 76
The Scope of Human Impact 77
The Extent of Environmental Pollution 77
Human Impact on Biogeochemical Cycles 81
Ecological Concepts in Resource Management 82
Any Given Environment Has Finite Carrying Capacity 82
Be Aware of Limiting Factors 83
Minimize Disruption by Mimicking Nature 83
Close the Loops 84
Conclusions 85
References and Additional Reading 85
Study Questions 86
5 the Human Population 87
A Brief History of Population Growth 88
Basic Demographics 89
Birth, Death, and Fertility 90
ISSUE 5.1: AIDS and Population Growth in Africa 92
Age Structure 95
Migration 98
Trends in Population Growth 99
The Distribution of Population and Population Growth 100
Regional Disparities 101
Increasing Urbanization 101
ISSUE 5.2: Megacities: The New Urban Demographic Transition 102
Population Control Strategies 102
Socioeconomic Conditions and Fertility 103
Contraception and Family Planning 103
Population Growth and Affluence 104
Conclusions 105
References and Additional Reading 105
Study Questions 106
6 Agriculture and Food Production 107
Food Production Resources 108
Crops 108
Livestock 111
The U.S. Agricultural Land Resource Base 112
Modern American Agricultural Systems 115
Natural Resources for Agricultural Production 115
Soil 116
Water 116
ISSUE 6.1: Agriculture, CO 2 , and Climate: The Only Certainty Is Change 118
Fertilizers and Pesticides 120
Seed 122
Labor and Machines 124
ISSUE 6.2: The Digital Farmer 125
Animals in the Food Production System 125
Environmental Impacts of Food Production 128
Soil Erosion 128
Rangeland Degradation 133
Agricultural Policy and Management 136
Subsidies 136
ISSUE 6.3: Agricultural Subsidies, Trade, and Poverty in the Developing World 136
Sustainable Agriculture 138
Rangeland Management 138
Conclusions 140
References and Additional Reading 140
Study Questions 141
7 Forests 142
Forests as Multiple-Use Resources 142
Forests as Fiber Resources 144
Principles of Sustainable Forestry 144
Forest Management 144
ISSUE 7.1: Chipko: Grass-Roots Environmentalism or a Struggle for Economic Development? 146
Forest Products Technology 148
Nonfiber Uses of Forest Resources 150
Habitat 150
Water Resources 151
ISSUE 7.2: The Pacific Lumber Saga 152
Recreation 154
Carbon Storage 154
The Role of Fire 155
Deforestation and Reforestation: Three Examples 157
The Amazon Forest 157
The Siberian Forest 159
The U.S. Forestland 160
Conclusion 166
References and Additional Reading 166
Study Questions 167
8 Biodiversity and Habitat 168
The Value of Biodiversity 168
Ecological Interactions 169
Potential Resources 169
The Inherent Value of Species 170
The Pace and Processes of Extinction 172
Causes of Biodiversity Loss 175
ISSUE 8.1: The Mass Extinction of Freshwater Mussels 178
Conservation of Biodiversity 180
Species Protection 180
Habitat Conservation 183
The Endangered Species Act 186
ISSUE 8.2: Ecotourism: Loving Wild Places to Death 187
The Convention on Biological Diversity 188
Conclusions 189
References and Additional Reading 190
Study Questions 192
9 Marine Resources: Common Property Dilemmas 193
Introduction 193
The Marine Environment 193
Physical Properties 193
ISSUE 9.1: Salmon in the Pacific Northwest 196
Habitat and Biological Productivity 197
Fisheries 199
Fisheries Production 199
Fisheries in Distress 200
Minerals from the Seabed 200
Energy Resources 200
ISSUE 9.2: Strip Mining the Oceans 201
Deep-Seabed Minerals 202
Management of Marine Resources 203
The Problem of Ownership 203
The Law of the Sea Treaty 204
Marine Pollution Problems 207
Protecting Marine Ecosystems 209
Example: Exploitation and Protection of Marine Mammals 212
Conclusions 214
References and Additional Reading 215
Study Questions 217
10 Water Quantity and Quality 218
Water Supply and Its Variability 218
Spatial Variation in Surface Supply 219
Temporal Variability 222
Water Supplies and Storage 222
The Demand for Water 226
Off-Stream Uses 227
ISSUE 10.1: Water Politics in the Western United States 228
In-Stream Uses 230
Water Quality 232
Major Water Pollutants and Their Sources 232
Groundwater Pollution Problems 238
Water Pollution Control 239
Wastewater Treatment 239
Nonpoint Pollution Control 240
Pollution Prevention 241
Quality, Quantity, and the Water-Supply Problem 241
Relations Between Quality and Quantity 241
ISSUE 10.2: Water Pollution Legislation in the United States 242
ISSUE 10.3: Surf Your Watershed 244
Water Quality in Developing Regions 244
Conclusions 246
References and Additional Reading 246
Study Questions 247
11 the Air Resource and Urban Air Quality 248
Introduction 248
Air Pollution Meteorology 248
Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere 248
Role of Meteorology and Topography 250
Major Pollutants 252
Particulate Matter (PM) 252
Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) 252
Nitrogen Oxides (no X) 253
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 253
Ozone (O 3) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 253
Lead (Pb) 253
Urban Air Pollution: The Worldâs Megacities 254
Monitoring Network 254
Air-Quality Patterns 254
Economic Develpment and Air Pollution 254
Urban Air Pollution in the United States 256
Air Pollution Monitoring in the United States 256
ISSUE 11.1: On a Clear Day You Can See the Grand Canyon 259
National Trends 259
How Healthy Is the Air You Breathe? 262
ISSUE 11.2: Green Days, Red Days 263
Air-Quality Control and Planning 264
ISSUE 11.3: Smog City, USA 264
Toxins in the Air 267
Indoor Air Pollution 268
Conclusions 269
References and Additional Reading 269
Study Questions 270
12 Regional and Global Atmospheric Change 271
Acid Deposition 271
Formation and Emissions Sources 271
Geographic Extent and Effects on the Environment 275
Control and Management 277
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 279
Ozone-Depleting Chemicals 280
The Ozone Hole Is Discovered 280
Reducing ODCs: The Montreal Protocol 281
ISSUE 12.1: Black Market Freon 284
Global Climate Change 284
The Greenhouse Effect 285
Greenhouse Gases 285
Impacts 287
ISSUE 12.2: The Costs of Global Warming 290
Greenhouse Politics and Emissions Stabilization 290
Conclusions 292
References and Additional Reading 293
Study Questions 294
13 Nonfuel Minerals 295
Introduction 295
Reserves and Resources 295
Availability of Major Minerals 298
Geology of Mineral Deposits 298
Variations in Reserves and Resources 299
World Reserves and Resources 299
U.S. Production and Consumption 301
Strategic Minerals and Stockpiling 302
Mining Impacts and Policy 304
Environmental Considerations 304
Social Impacts 305
ISSUE 13.1: The New Gold Rush: Prospecting Is Poison 306
Nonfuel Minerals Policy 308
Conserving Minerals: Reuse, Recovery, Recycling 308
ISSUE 13.2: Living with Boom and Bust 309
ISSUE 13.3: Computers as Solid Waste 311
Conclusions 311
References and Additional Reading 312
Study Questions 313
14 Energy Resources 314
Energy Use in the Industrial Age 314
Wood, Coal and the Industrial Revolution 315
Oil and the Internal Combustion Engine 315
Energy Use in the Late Twentieth Century 316
Energy Sources 318
Oil and Natural Gas 318
Coal 323
Other Fossil Fuels 327
Nuclear Power 327
Renewable Energy 331
ISSUE 14.1: The Legacy of Chernobyl 332
ISSUE 14.2: The Three Gorges Dam 336
Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation 340
Energy Futures 343
High-Energy Options 343
Low-Energy Options 344
Energy Policies for the Future 345
ISSUE 14.3: Electric Energy Deregulation and the California Energy Crisis 346
References and Additional Reading 348
Study Questions 349
15 the Transition to a Global Sustainable Society 350
Limits to Growth? 350
What Is Sustainable Development? 352
Environmental Versus Economic Sustainability 352
A Working Definition of Sustainability 353
How Does Sustainability Work? 353
Waste Recycling 355
Waste Reduction 356
Design for Reuse and Recycling 358
Changing Consumption Patterns 359
Science and Technology for Sustainability 360
Tipping the Balance 360
Individual Action 361
Corporate Action 361
Government Action 362
Looking Forward 366
References and Additional Reading 366
Study Questions 367
Glossary 369
Index 382
