Environmental Standards

Combined Exposures and Their Effects on Human Beings and Their Environment

By: Christian Streffer, Josef BÃ¼cker, Adrienne Cansier

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Hardcover | 4 August 2003

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450 Pages

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23.5 x 15.88 x 1.91

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The rapid growth of the world population - nearly six-fold over the last hundred years - combined with the rising number of technical installations especially in the industrialized countries has lead to ever tighter and more strained living spaces on our planet. Because ofthe inevitable processes oflife, man was at first an exploiter rather than a careful preserver of the environment. Environmental awareness with the intention to conserve the environment has grown only in the last few decades. Environmental standards have been defined and limit values have been set largely guided, however, by scientific and medical data on single exposures, while public opinion, on the other hand, now increasingly calls for astronger consideration of the more complex situations following combined exposures. Furthermore, it turned out that environmental standards, while necessarily based on scientific data, must also take into account ethical, legal, economic, and sociological aspects. A task of such complexity can only be dealt with appropriately in the framework of an inter disciplinary group.

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Summary	p. XVII
Introduction	p. 1
Methodological Foundations of Defining Environmental Standards	p. 5
Environmental Standards and Human Attitudes to Nature	p. 5
Environmental Standards as Cultural Achievements	p. 6
Setting Limit Values as a Rational Process	p. 10
Pragmatic Consistency and Practical Generalizability	p. 14
Methodological Problems of Establishing Limit Values	p. 18
The Effect Principle	p. 18
Natural Exposures	p. 23
Combined Effects	p. 25
Environmental Policy	p. 28
The Risk Concept as a Fundamental Concept of Environmental Policy	p. 28
Principles of Environmental Policy	p. 31
Instruments of Environmental Policy	p. 34
Literature	p. 35
Scientific and Medical Foundations	p. 39
Possible Principles of Interaction between two Noxae, especially with the Involvement of Ionizing Radiation	p. 41
Dose-Response Relationships and Models for Combined Effects	p. 41
Dose-Response Curves and Mechanisms	p. 41
Reversible Effect Mechanisms	p. 43
Irreversible Mechanisms	p. 45
Mutagenic Effects	p. 46
Tumours	p. 48
Dose-Response Curves in the Lower Dose Range	p. 50
Differentiation between Stochastic and Non-stochastic Effects	p. 54
Conclusions	p. 55
Combined Effects	p. 56
Terminology	p. 56
Comparison with Single Effects: Synergism and Antagonism	p. 56
Comparison with Models	p. 57
Toxicokinetic and Toxicodynamic Interactions	p. 58
Representation of Combined Effects	p. 58
Models for Combined Effects	p. 60
The Importance of the Independence Model	p. 65
Independent Effects of Different Kinds	p. 66
Combinations of Stochastic Effects	p. 66
Combinations of Non-stochastic Effects	p. 68
Non-mechanistic Models	p. 71
Dose Additivity for Agents Behaving Differently	p. 74
Stochastic and Non-stochastic Effects in Combination	p. 74
Non-stochastic Multiple Combinations	p. 75
Stochastic Multiple Combinations	p. 77
Stochastic and Non-stochastic Multiple Combinations	p. 77
Examples of Empirical Combined Effects	p. 78
Interactions between Medicinal Drugs: Mechanisms, Extent and Incidence	p. 78
Dose-Response Analyses	p. 79
Effect Amplification in the Lower Dose Range?	p. 85
Reduction of a Threshold Dose of A in the Presence of B?	p. 86
Slope Values of Dose-Response Curvesand their Impact on Amplification Effect in Combination	p. 89
Conclusions	p. 89
Literature	p. 91
Combined Exposure to Radiation and Substances	p. 94
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation	p. 94
Overview	p. 94
The Induction of Malignant Diseases	p. 95
Extrapolations	p. 98
Radiation Protection	p. 99
Radiation Dose Units	p. 99
Radiation Exposure of the Population	p. 100
Dose Limits	p. 102
Interactions between Ionizing Radiation and Chemicals	p. 103
Basic Considerations on Estimating Combined Effects	p. 103
Exemplary Discussion of Combined Effects	p. 105
Summary Assessment and Recommendations for Action	p. 133
Literature	p. 141
Combined Exposure to Chemical Substances	p. 147
Introduction	p. 147
The Categorical Heterogeneity of Limit Values	p. 148
Problems concerning "Safety Margins"	p. 148
Toxicological Systematics of Combined Exposures	p. 150
Present Knowledge on Combined Effects	p. 152
Conventionally Toxic Effects	p. 153
A Complex, mostly Indefinite Mixture: Love Canal	p. 154
A Complex, Definite Mixture: Contaminations in Drinking Water	p. 157
Conclusions	p. 159
Hypotheses on Combined Effects in the Range of "Effect Thresholds"	p. 159
Difficulties of Finding Limit Values for Combined Exposures	p. 159
Findings Supporting the Hypotheses	p. 161
Further Experiments Supporting the Hypotheses	p. 169
Apparent Conflicts with the Hypotheses	p. 172
Summary and Assessment	p. 179
Appendix	p. 181
Literature	p. 182
Combined Exposure to Cancerogenic Substances	p. 183
Attack Sites and Factors of Influence	p. 184
Establishing the Cancerogenic Properties of Chemical Substances: Epidemiology vs. Experiment	p. 187
Results from Epidemiological Studies	p. 188
Animal Experiments	p. 193
Summary Assessment and Recommendations for Action	p. 210
Appendix	p. 212
Literature	p. 215
Quantitative Relationships between Mixed Exposures and Effects on Plants	p. 217
Introduction	p. 217
Establishing Dose-Response Relationships and Evaluating Guideline Values for Single Components	p. 218
The Relationship between Exposure and Effect	p. 218
The Present Situation Concerning Immissions of Effects	p. 219
Protected Assets	p. 221
Criteria for the Detection and Assessment of Effects	p. 222
Assessment of the Results regarding their Relevance for Determining Dose-Response Relationships	p. 223
Evaluation of the Guideline Values for Single Components	p. 226
Prospects for the Appraisal of the Hazard Potential of Mixed Exposures	p. 239
Examples of Combined Effects	p. 240
Models for Dose-Response Relationships in Combined Exposure	p. 247
Filtered-Unfiltered Experiments	p. 253
Possible Interactions	p. 254
Summary Assessment and Recommendations for Action	p. 256
Literatur	p. 259
Perception of Technical Risks	p. 265
Foreword	p. 265
Current Risk Debate	p. 266
Risk Perception Models	p. 269
Semantic Risk Model	p. 269
Risk as an Early Warning Indicator	p. 273
Intuitive Processes of Risk Perception	p. 274
The Media as a Source of Information	p. 278
Perception of Combined Effects	p. 280
Psychosomatic Links	p. 284
Duties of Risk Policy	p. 286
Conclusions	p. 289
Literature	p. 292
The Importance of Economic Factors in Setting Combined Environmental Standards	p. 297
Scope	p. 297
Cost-effective Environmental Protection with Adequate Information	p. 299
Adverse Effects	p. 299
Abatement Costs	p. 301
Cost-efficient Limit Values	p. 302
An Empirical Example	p. 306
Choice of Policy Instruments	p. 307
Cost-efficient Limit Values under Imperfect Information	p. 310
Uncertainty in Decision-making	p. 310
Stochastic Decision Model	p. 312
Fuzzy Decision Model	p. 314
Decision Models Subject to Uncertainty	p. 316
Conclusions	p. 317
Literature	p. 318
Legal Problems of Assessing and Regulating Exposure to Combined Effects of Substances and Radiation	p. 321
The Current Legal Situation	p. 321
Constitutional Duties of Protection	p. 321
Environment Protection Law	p. 322
General	p. 322
Laws Relating to Environmental Media	p. 323
Chemicals Law	p. 325
Secondary Legislation	p. 327
General	p. 327
Limits	p. 327
Action Thresholds Giving Rise to Legal Obligations	p. 332
Classification of Mixtures and Preparations	p. 334
Imputation of Combined Effects	p. 338
Civil Liability Law	p. 338
Welfare Law Pertaining to Occupational Health and Safety	p. 341
Public Law	p. 342
Lifestyle-based Substance Risk	p. 345
The Situation in Other Countries	p. 346
USA	p. 346
Switzerland	p. 349
Netherlands	p. 350
Appraisal	p. 352
Constitutional Foundations	p. 352
Summary Appraisal of the Current Legal Situation and Reform Needs	p. 354
Reform Proposals I: Assessment of Combined Effects	p. 356
Testing of New Substances	p. 356
Testing of Existing Substances	p. 357
Classification	p. 357
Research Obligations	p. 357
Conclusions	p. 358
Reform Proposals II: Regulation	p. 359
General	p. 359
Limits to the Law in Regulating Combined Effects	p. 359
Prevention of Dangers and Precaution Against Hazards	p. 360
Environmental Quality, Emission Limits and Minimization	p. 363
Conclusions	p. 364
Regulatory Strategies for Combined Effects	p. 364
Limits to the Regulatory Coverage of (Possible) Combined Effects	p. 364
Regulatory Strategies	p. 365
Case-wise Risk Assessment	p. 366
Safety Margins	p. 367
Dominant Components	p. 368
Limits for Combined Effects	p. 368
Emission Restrictions and Minimization	p. 370
Policy Addressees (Imputation Models)	p. 372
Basic Imputation Models	p. 372
Voluntary Model	p. 372
Quota Model	p. 373
Priority Principle	p. 374
Remediation Model	p. 375
Dominant Component Model	p. 375
Compensatory Model	p. 376
General Imputation Principles	p. 376
Relationship between Regulatory and Imputation Models	p. 378
Recommendations	p. 379
Literature	p. 380
Appraisal and Recommendations	p. 387
Summary Appraisal	p. 387
Possible Solutions and Recommendations for Action	p. 393
Glossary	p. 397
Authors	p. 405
Table of Contents provided by Publisher. All Rights Reserved.

Environmental Standards

Combined Exposures and Their Effects on Human Beings and Their Environment

At a Glance

Hardcover

Shipping

How to return your order

Defective items

You Can Find This Book In

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