| Acknowledgements | p. xi |
| Preface | p. xiii |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Topics | p. 7 |
| The biological approach to biogeography | p. 8 |
| The evolutionary approach to biogeography | p. 10 |
| The inductive approach to biogeography | p. 12 |
| Biased approaches to biogeography | p. 14 |
| Scales of variation | p. 16 |
| Conclusions | p. 20 |
| Patterns of concordance | p. 23 |
| Qualitative and quantitative approaches | p. 25 |
| The qualitative approach | p. 25 |
| An example of the qualitative approach | p. 26 |
| The quantitative approach | p. 27 |
| An example of the quantitative approach | p. 28 |
| Conclusions | p. 31 |
| Methodology of quantitative biogeographical classification | p. 32 |
| A model of biogeographical classification | p. 32 |
| Criteria of biogeographical classification | p. 32 |
| Problems in the application of classification criteria | p. 35 |
| Endemism as a classification criterion | p. 35 |
| Effects of defining sampling areas | p. 36 |
| Procedures in biogeographical classification | p. 39 |
| Similarity coefficients | p. 39 |
| Effects of the number of shared taxa and of sampling area | p. 41 |
| Testing differences between similarity coefficients | p. 43 |
| Recommendations | p. 44 |
| Hierarchical cluster techniques | p. 44 |
| A generalized algorithm for agglomerative strategies | p. 45 |
| Some specific agglomerative cluster techniques | p. 46 |
| Recommendations | p. 48 |
| Twinspan, a divisive technique | p. 48 |
| Problems in the application of clustering algorithms | p. 48 |
| Area delimitation | p. 48 |
| Interlocation variation | p. 49 |
| Intralocation variation | p. 50 |
| Testing classifications | p. 51 |
| Conclusions | p. 52 |
| Criticism of biogeographical classification | p. 54 |
| Biogeographical classification and taxonomic level | p. 54 |
| Are biogeographical units homogeneous and stable? | p. 55 |
| Geographical discordance of ranges | p. 56 |
| How sharp are boundaries? | p. 57 |
| Why are biogeographical classifications hierarchical? | p. 59 |
| Conclusions | p. 60 |
| Classification and ordination | p. 64 |
| Efficiency of the models | p. 65 |
| Methodology of ordination | p. 67 |
| Scales of variation and concordant variation | p. 69 |
| Combinations of classification and ordination | p. 70 |
| Stability of ordinations | p. 71 |
| An application of classification and ordination | p. 72 |
| Conclusions | p. 76 |
| Summary of Part I | p. 78 |
| Geographical trends in species richness and biological traits | p. 81 |
| Geographical trends in species richness | p. 83 |
| Latitudinal trends | p. 83 |
| Longitudinal trends | p. 85 |
| Continental trends in avian diversity | p. 87 |
| Continental trends in Holarctic plants | p. 90 |
| Explanations of broad-scale trends in species richness | p. 92 |
| Geographic nesting of species | p. 94 |
| The impact of ecological factors on European Silenoidae | p. 98 |
| The impact of historical factors on North American Polemoniaceae | p. 100 |
| The impact of genetical factors on temperate wheats | p. 101 |
| Conclusions | p. 102 |
| Geographical trends in biological traits | p. 103 |
| Leaf form in plants | p. 104 |
| Life form in plants | p. 105 |
| Polyploidy and genome size in plants | p. 106 |
| Photosynthetic pathways | p. 109 |
| Shell morphology in marine molluscs | p. 112 |
| Alkaloid-bearing species | p. 114 |
| Conclusions | p. 115 |
| Intraspecific trends | p. 116 |
| Morphological traits | p. 117 |
| Physiological traits | p. 119 |
| Population genetic variation | p. 120 |
| Changes in population genetic structure | p. 121 |
| Discordant variation in man | p. 122 |
| Conclusions | p. 124 |
| Summary of Part II | p. 125 |
| Areography: the analysis of species ranges | p. 127 |
| The anatomy of species ranges | p. 129 |
| Range structure | p. 130 |
| The range as an optimum-response surface | p. 130 |
| The distribution of vitality and dynamic behaviour | p. 135 |
| Latitudinal and altitudinal intensity distributions | p. 140 |
| Evaluations of the optimum-response model | p. 142 |
| Range shape | p. 142 |
| Range size | p. 143 |
| Range margins | p. 148 |
| Indirect approaches to range delimitation | p. 148 |
| Direct approaches to range delimitation | p. 154 |
| Risk assessment | p. 157 |
| Why study range margins? | p. 159 |
| The geography of species interactions | p. 160 |
| Potential ranges through monophagy | p. 161 |
| Changes in the general level of intensity | p. 162 |
| Invading species | p. 165 |
| Optimum-response surfaces and climatic reconstruction | p. 166 |
| Conclusions | p. 168 |
| The dynamic structure of species ranges | p. 169 |
| Good's Theories of Tolerance and Migration extended | p. 169 |
| Climatic release and dispersal in the spruce budworm | p. 171 |
| Climatic causes of range dynamics | p. 174 |
| Features of range dynamics | p. 176 |
| Seasonality and optimum-response surfaces | p. 177 |
| Extinction | p. 180 |
| Optimum surfaces and individualistic spatial behaviour | p. 182 |
| Conclusion: the range as a process | p. 184 |
| Population dynamic theories | p. 185 |
| Population control versus risk spreading | p. 185 |
| The balance of nature | p. 186 |
| Extinction probabilities explained by energy budgets and spatial dynamics | p. 190 |
| Conclusions | p. 193 |
| Summary of Part III | p. 194 |
| Species ranges and patterns of concordance | p. 197 |
| Discontinuous variation in space and time | p. 199 |
| Biogeographical provinces and their dynamics | p. 200 |
| Glacials and interglacials | p. 205 |
| The analysis of scales of variation | p. 208 |
| The integration of scales of variation | p. 210 |
| Global unity of climatic variation | p. 211 |
| The representativity of our time | p. 213 |
| Conclusions | p. 214 |
| The future | p. 216 |
| References | p. 219 |
| Author index | p. 239 |
| Species index | p. 244 |
| Subject index | p. 246 |
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