Computer Graphics Programming

I - Introduction to Computer Graphics Based on GKS.- What Is Computer Graphics?.- 1.1 Definition of Computer Graphics.- 1.2 Areas of Computer Graphics.- 1.3 Impact of the Graphical Kernel System on Computer Graphics.- 2 Aims and Contents of Part I.- 3 The Computer Graphics User.- 4 Interfaces of the Graphical Kernel System.- 5 Principles and Goals of the Graphical Kernel System.- 6 Main Concepts of the Graphical Kernel System.- 7 Creating Graphical Output.- 7.1 Line Graphics and Raster Graphics.- 7.2 Output Primitives and Attributes.- 7.2.1 Output Primitives.- 7.2.2 Output Primitive Attributes.- 7.3 Indices, Bundles, and Tables.- 8 Coordinate Systems and Transformations.- 8.1 Coordinate Systems.- 8.2 Transformations.- 8.3 The Normalization Transformation.- 8.4 Clipping.- 9 The Graphical Workstation.- 9.1 Routing Output to Workstations.- 9.2 Types of GKS Workstations.- 9.3 The Workstation Transformation.- 9.4 The Deferral State.- 9.5 Addressing Special Workstation Capabilities.- 10 Input.- 10.1 Interactive Computer Graphics.- 10.2 Logical Input Device Classes.- 10.3 Operating Modes.- 10.4 Echoes, Prompts, and Input Device Initialisation.- 11 Segments.- 11.1 Structuring Pictures.- 11.2 Manipulating Segments.- 11.3 Segment Attributes.- 11.4 Segment Transformations.- 11.5 Workstation-Dependent and Workstation-Independent Segment Storage.- 11.6 Copying Segments.- 12 The GKS Metafile.- 12.1 Graphics Metafiles.- 12.2 GKSM and CGM.- 12.3 The Metafile Interface.- 12.4 The Metafile Formats.- 13 States and State Lists.- 13.1 The GKS Operating State.- 13.2 The State Lists.- 13.3 Inquiry Functions for State List Values.- 14 Error Handling.- 15 3D Extensions to GKS.- II - The Process of Generating a Standard.- 1 The Evolution of Computer Graphics.- 1.1 Graphical Devices.- 1.2 Graphics Software.- 1.3 SEILLAC I.- 2 Committees, People, and Events.- 2.1 Graphics Standardization Committees.- 2.2 People.- 2.3 Overview of the Main Events.- 3 GKS Review - Problems and Their Solutions.- 3.1 Scope of the Standard.- 3.2 Output Primitives.- 3.3 Segmentation.- 3.4 Input.- 3.5 Transformations.- 3.6 Workstation Concept.- III - Graphical Kernel System Programming.- 1 Format and Structure of Part III.- 1.1 Contents of Part III.- 1.2 Format of GKS Function Definitions.- 1.2.1 Example of the Definition of GKS Functions.- 1.2.2 Format of Language-Independent Definition.- 1.2.3 Format of FORTRAN Definition.- 1.3 Format of Examples.- 1.3.1 Example of an Example.- 1.3.2 Format of Pascal Examples.- 1.3.3 Format of FORTRAN Examples.- 1.4 Exercises.- 2 Levels.- 2.1 Overview.- 2.2 Functionality of the GKS Levels.- 2.2.1 The Minimal or Lowest Level of GKS (Level 0 a).- 2.2.2 Level 0 b.- 2.2.3 Level 0c.- 2.2.4 Levels 1a, 1b, 1c.- 2.2.5 Levels 2a, 2b, 2c.- 2.3 The Impact on Writing Portable Application Programs.- 2.4 Exercises.- 3 States and State Lists.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Operating States.- 3.3 The Functions Allowed in Individual States.- 3.4 State Lists.- 3.5 Basic Control Functions.- 3.6 Examples.- 4 Workstations.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Workstation Description Table.- 4.3 Workstation State List.- 4.4 GKS Functions Which Involve Workstations.- 4.5 Workstation Control.- 4.6 Deferring Picture Changes.- 4.7 Addressing Workstation Capabilities Not Covered by GKS.- 4.8 Examples.- 4.9 Exercises.- 5 Transformations.- 5.1 Coordinate Systems.- 5.2 Normalization Transformation.- 5.3 Workstation Transformation.- 5.4 Clipping.- 5.5 Transformation of LOCATOR and STROKE Input.- 5.6 Examples.- 5.7 Exercises.- 6 Output Primitives.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 POLYLINE Primitive.- 6.2.1 Global POLYLINE Attributes.- 6.2.2 Workstation-Dependent POLYLINE Attributes.- 6.3 POLYMARKER Primitive.- 6.3.1 Global Polymarker Attributes.- 6.3.2 Workstation-Dependent POLYMARKER Attributes.- 6.4 TEXT Primitive.- 6.4.1 TEXT Attributes for Beginners.- 6.4.2 Character Body.- 6.4.3 Text Extent Rectangle.- 6.4.4 Text Font and Precision.- 6.4.5 Setting Global Text Attributes.- 6.4.6 Workstation-Dependent TEXT Attributes.- 6.5 FILL AREA Primitive.- 6.5.1 Global FILL AREA Attributes.- 6.5.2 Workstation-Dependent FILL AREA Attributes.- 6.6 CELL ARRAY Primitive.- 6.7 Generalized Drawing Primitive (GDP).- 6.8 Attribute Setting Functions Which Concern All Primitives.- 6.8.1 Setting the Colour Table.- 6.8.2 Setting the Aspect Source Flags.- 6.8.3 Setting the Pick Identifier.- 6.8.4 Clipping Rectangle.- 6.9 Examples.- 6.10 Exercises.- 7 Segments.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 How Are Segments Generated?.- 7.3 What Is Stored in a Segment?.- 7.4 When Are Primitives Taken from the Transformation Pipeline?.- 7.5 Segment Creation and Deletion.- 7.6 Manipulation of the Segment Attributes.- 7.7 The Workstation-Independent Segment Storage (WISS).- 7.8 Different Levels of Segmentation.- 7.9 Utility Functions.- 7.10 Examples.- 7.11 Exercises.- 8 Input.- 8.1 Introduction to Logical Input Devices.- 8.1.1 Identification.- 8.1.2 Logical Input Classes and Values.- 8.1.3 Operating Modes.- 8.1.4 Logical Input Device Model.- 8.1.5 Setting the Logical Input Device Mode.- 8.2 Details About Logical Input Devices.- 8.2.1 LOCATOR and STROKE Devices.- 8.2.2 Valuator.- 8.2.3 Choice.- 8.2.4 Pick.- 8.2.5 String.- 8.3 Initialising Logical Input Devices.- 8.4 Changing the Input Device Mode.- 8.5 Request Input.- 8.6 Sample Input Functions.- 8.7 Event Input.- 8.7.1 Input Queue and Current Event Report.- 8.7.2 Functions to Await and Delete Event Queue Entries.- 8.7.3 Get Input Functions.- 8.8 A Compound Example of Using the GKS Input Functions.- 8.9 Exercises.- 9 Error Handling.- 9.1 Strategy.- 9.2 The Emergency Closure Procedure.- 9.3 The ERROR HANDLING and ERROR LOGGING Procedures.- 9.4 Error Detection Within GKS Procedures.- 9.5 Reaction of Application Programs to Error Detections.- 9.6 List of GKS Error Numbers and Messages.- 9.6.1 States.- 9.6.2 Workstations.- 9.6.3 Transformations.- 9.6.4 Output Attributes.- 9.6.5 Output Primitives.- 9.6.6 Segments.- 9.6.7 Input.- 9.6.8 Metafiles.- 9.6.9 Escape.- 9.6.10 Miscellaneous Errors.- 9.6.11 System Errors.- 9.6.12 Reserved Errors.- 9.6.13 Implementation-Dependent Errors.- 9.7 Exercises.- 10 Inquiry Functions.- 10.1 State Lists and Inquiry Functions.- 10.1.1 Error Reports in Inquiry Functions.- 10.1.2 Inquiry Functions for the Settable State Lists.- 10.1.3 Inquiry Functions for the Workstation Description Table.- 10.1.4 Inquiry Functions for the Error State List and Pixel Memories.- 10.2 Description of the Inquiry Functions.- 10.2.1 Inquiry Function for Operating State.- 10.2.2 Inquiry Functions for GKS Description Table.- 10.2.3 Inquiry Functions for GKS State List.- 10.2.4 Inquiry Functions for Workstation State List.- 10.2.5 Inquiry Functions for Workstation Description Table.- 10.2.6 Inquiry Functions for Segment State List.- 10.2.7 Pixel Inquiries.- 10.2.8 Inquiry Function for GKS Error State List.- 10.3 Examples.- 10.4 Exercises.- 11 Metafile Interface.- 11.1 Overview.- 11.2 The Metafile Workstation.- 11.3 GKSM Output.- 11.3.1 Non-Graphical Data.- 11.3.2 Graphical GKSM Output.- 11.3.3 Segment Functions.- 11.4 GKSM Input.- 11.5 Program Examples.- 11.6 Exercises.- IV - GKS-3D.- 1 History.- 2 Overview of GKS-3D.- 2.1 Scope and Purpose.- 2.2 Functionality of GKS-3D.- 2.3 Levels.- 3 State Lists.- 4 Workstations.- 5 Transformations.- 5.1 Coordinate Systems.- 5.2 Normalization Transformation.- 5.3 Viewing Transformation.- 5.4 Hidden Line/Hidden Surface Removal (HLHSR).- 5.5 Workstation Transformation.- 5.6 Transformation of LOCATOR 3 and STROKE 3 Input.- 6 Output Primitives.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 POLYLINE 3 Primitive.- 6.3 POLYMARKER 3 Primitive.- 6.4 TEXT 3 Primitive.- 6.5 FILL AREA 3 Primitive.- 6.6 FILL AREA SET 3 Primitive.- 6.7 CELL ARRAY 3 Primitive.- 6.8 Generalized Drawing Primitive 3 (GDP3).- 7 Segments.- 8 Input.- 8.1 Initialise Functions.- 8.2 Request Input Functions.- 8.3 Sample Input Functions.- 8.4 Event Input Functions.- 9 List of GKS-3D Error Numbers and Messages.- 9.1 GKS-3D Transformations.- 9.2 GKS-3D Output Attributes.- 9.3 GKS-3D Output Primitives.- 10 Inquiry Functions.- 10.1 Inquiry Functions for GKS-3D State List.- 10.2 Inquiry Functions for GKS-3D Workstation State List.- 10.3 Inquiry Functions for GKS-3D Workstation Description Table.- 10.4 Inquiry Functions for the Segment State List.- 10.5 Pixel Inquiries.- 11 Embedding the GKS Functions into GKS-3D.- 12 PHIGS.- v - The GKS Environment.- 1 Mapping Output Primitives and Attributes to Physical Workstations.- 1.1 POLYLINE Primitive and Attributes.- 1.2 POLYMARKER Primitive and Attributes.- 1.3 TEXT Primitive and Attributes.- 1.4 FILL AREA Primitive and Attributes.- 1.5 CELL ARRAY Primitive.- 1.6 Generalized Drawing Primitive (GDP).- 1.7 Colour Attribute.- 1.8 Transformability of Geometric Aspects of Non-Geometric Attributes.- 1.9 Segment Attributes.- 2 Mapping Logical onto Physical Input Devices.- 2.1 The Role of Logical Input Devices.- 2.2 Properties of Logical Input Devices.- 2.3 Properties of Physical Input Devices.- 2.4 The Logical Input Device Model.- 2.5 Means of Defining Logical Input Device Realizations.- 2.5.1 A Syntax for the Specification of Interaction Processes.- 2.5.2 Generating Logical Input Device Implementations.- 2.6 Some Examples of Logical Input Device Realizations.- 2.6.1 LOCATOR and STROKE Devices.- 2.6.2 Valuator.- 2.6.3 Choice.- 2.6.4 Pick.- 2.6.5 String.- 3 Implementation Aspects.- 3.1 Feasibility of GKS Implementations.- 3.2 Generality of GKS Implementations.- 3.2.1 Environment-Specific Systems.- 3.2.2 Device-Independent Systems.- 3.2.3 Configurable Systems.- 3.3 Some Implementation Concepts.- 3.3.1 Output.- 3.3.2 Input.- 3.4 Permitted Differences Between GKS Implementations.- 3.4.1 Global Differences.- 3.4.2 Workstation-Dependent Differences.- 3.5 Documentation of an Implementation.- 4 Language Interfaces and Their Implementation.- 4.1 Guidelines for the Definition of Language Bindings.- 4.1.1 Language Binding Rules.- 4.1.2 Implementation of the Language Interface.- 4.2 The GKS FORTRAN Language Binding.- 4.3 The GKS Pascal Language Binding.- 4.3.1 General Definitions.- 4.3.2 Pascal Data Types.- 4.3.3 Pascal Procedures.- 4.4 Other Language Bindings.- 5 Interfaces to Graphics Devices.- 5.1 Principles.- 5.2 Separation of the Device-Independent from the Device Dependent Code Parts.- 5.3 DI/DD Interfaces.- 5.3.1 DI/DD Function Set.- 5.3.2 Minimal DI/DD Interfaces.- 5.3.3 Constructing DI/DD Interfaces.- 5.4 The DI/DD Function Set.- 5.4.1 The Workstation Function Set.- 5.4.2 Device-Oriented Function Set.- 5.5 DI/DD Interface Description Tables.- 5.6 Computer Graphics Interface.- 5.6.1 Functional Description.- 5.6.2 Encoding Parts.- 5.6.3 Language Bindings.- 5.6.4 Relationship of CGI to GKS.- 5.6.5 Relationship of CGI to Metafiles.- 6 Metafiles.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Graphics Metafiles Proposals.- 6.3 GKS Metafile.- 6.3.1 Contents of the GKS Metafile.- 6.3.2 Format of the GKS Metafile.- 6.3.3 Status of the Metafile Definition.- 6.3.4 File Format and Data Format.- 6.3.5 Generation and Interpretation of Metafile.- 6.3.6 Control Items.- 6.3.7 Items for Output Primitives.- 6.3.8 Items for Output Primitive Attributes.- 6.3.9 Items for Workstation Attributes.- 6.3.10 Item for Clipping Rectangle.- 6.3.11 Items for Workstation Transformation.- 6.3.12 Items for Segment Manipulation.- 6.3.13 Items for Segment Attributes.- 6.3.14 User Items.- 6.4 The ISO Computer Graphics Metafile CGM.- 6.5 Levels of Metafiles.- 7 Certification/Validation of GKS.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Verifying GKS Implementations.- 7.1.2 Falsification Approach.- 7.2 A Model for Certification.- 7.2.1 Test Programs.- 7.2.2 Candidate Implementations.- 7.2.3 Reference Implementations.- 7.3 Interfaces for Testing.- 7.3.1 Application Program Interface.- 7.3.2 Operator Interface.- 7.3.3 Device Interface.- 7.4 Certification by Program Construction.- 7.5 A Combined Model for Verification and Testing.- 7.5.1 Format of Certification Data.- 7.5.2 Describing the Candidate Implementation.- 7.5.3 Reference Implementation.- 7.6 GKS Certification in Practice.- 7.6.1 Test Centres.- 7.6.2 Test Program Suite.- 7.6.3 Certification Procedure.- 7.6.4 Assistance for an Implementor.- 7.6.5 The Present State of Practical Certification.- 8 Terminology.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Vocabulary.- References.