Preface xxi
1 Biofertilizer Utilization in Forestry 1
Wendy Ying Ying Liu and Ranjetta Poobathy
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Mechanisms of Actions of Biofertilizers 3
1.2.1 Facilitation of N Acquisition 3
1.2.1.1 Mutualistic N2 Fixation 4
1.2.1.2 Non-Symbiotic N2 Fixation 5
1.2.2 Facilitation of P Acquisition 5
1.2.2.1 Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms 6
1.2.2.2 Mycorrhizas 7
1.2.3 Potassium Solubilization 8
1.2.4 Production of Siderophores 9
1.2.5 Modulation of Phytohormones 10
1.2.6 Phytoprotection 12
1.3 Factors Influencing the Outcome of Forestry-Related Biofertilizer Applications 13
1.4 Applications of Biofertilizers in Forestry 16
1.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects 18
References 20
2 Impact of Biofertilizers on Horticultural Crops 39
Clement Kiing Fook Wong and Chui-Yao Teh
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Microbial Strains Used in Biofertilizers 41
2.3 Impact of Biofertilizer Application on Horticultural Crops 41
2.3.1 Increased Yield and Quality of Crops 41
2.3.1.1 Vegetable Crops 44
2.3.1.2 Fruit Crops 46
2.3.1.3 Ornamental Plants 48
2.3.2 Enhanced Nutritional Content of Produce 49
2.3.2.1 Mineral-Biofortified Crops 49
2.3.2.2 Enhanced Secondary Metabolites 50
2.3.2.3 Improved Vitamin Content 51
2.3.3 Improved Tolerance Against Biotic Stress 52
2.3.3.1 Fungal and Bacterial Pathogens 52
2.3.3.2 Viral Pathogens 56
2.3.3.3 Insect Pests 58
2.3.3.4 Nematodes 61
2.3.3.5 Weeds 64
2.3.4 Improved Tolerance Against Abiotic Stress 65
2.3.4.1 Drought 66
2.3.4.2 Salinity 68
2.3.4.3 Heavy Metal 70
2.3.4.4 Cold Stress 71
2.3.4.5 Heat Stress 73
2.3.5 Improved Vegetative Propagation Efficiency 73
2.3.5.1 Propagation by Cuttings 73
2.3.5.2 Grafting 74
2.4 Future Perspectives and Challenges Ahead 75
2.5 Conclusion 79
References 79
3 N2 Fixation in Biofertilizers 105
Rekha Sharma, Sapna Nehra and Dinesh Kumar
3.1 Introduction 106
3.2 Biofertilizers 108
3.2.1 Origin 108
3.3 Biofertilizer: Transporter Constituents 108
3.4 Mechanism of Actions of Biofertilizers 109
3.5 Biochemistry of Manufacture of Biofertilizer 109
3.6 Benefits of Biofertilizer Over Biochemical Fertilizers 110
3.7 Variances Among Organic and Biofertilizer 111
3.8 Types of Biofertilizers 111
3.9 Microorganisms Utilized to Make Biofertilizer 111
3.10 Microorganism in Nitrogen Fixation 113
3.10.1 Biofertilizers: Symbiotic N-Fixers 113
3.10.2 Biofertilizers: Free Living N-Fixers 114
3.10.3 Biofertilizers: Associative Symbiotic N-Fixers 114
3.11 Phosphorus Solubilizing Microbes 115
3.12 Conclusion and Future Prospect 115
Acknowledgments 116
Abbreviations 116
References 117
4 Organic Farming by Biofertilizers 121
Anuradha and Jagvir Singh
4.1 Introduction 122
4.2 Biofertilizers 123
4.2.1 Benefits of Biofertilizers 126
4.2.2 Method of Biofertilizer Application 126
4.2.2.1 Seed Treatment 126
4.2.2.2 Seedling Treatment 127
4.2.2.3 Setts and Tuta Treatment 127
4.2.2.4 Soil Treatment 127
4.2.3 Precautions During Application of Biofertilizers 127
4.3 Classification of Biofertilizers 128
4.3.1 Nitrogen Fixer Bacteria 128
4.3.1.1 Commercial Applications 129
4.3.2 Cyanobacteria as Biofertilizers 130
4.3.2.1 Commercial Applications 130
4.3.2.2 Factors Affecting Cyanobacteria Biofertilizer 131
4.3.3 Mycorrhiza as Biofertilizers 131
4.3.3.1 Ectotrophic Mycorrhiza 132
4.3.3.2 Endotrophic Mycorrhiza 132
4.3.3.3 Changes in Mineral Compounds 133
4.3.3.4 Manure Value and Its Importance 133
4.3.4 Azolla as Biofertilizer 134
4.3.5 Vermicompost 135
4.3.5.1 Method of Vermicompost 135
4.4 Organic Farming 136
4.4.1 Objectives of Organic Farming 136
4.4.2 Benefits of Organic Farming 136
4.4.3 Benefit for Environment 137
4.4.4 Methods of Organic Farming 137
4.4.5 Techniques for Organic Farming 137
4.4.5.1 Crop Diversity 138
4.4.5.2 Soil Management 138
4.4.5.3 Weed Management 138
4.5 Traditional Agriculture vs. Organic and Inorganic Farming 139
4.5.1 Problems Created by Traditional Farming 139
4.6 Reasons for Doing Organic Farming 140
4.6.1 To Save Soil Health 140
4.6.2 To Preserve Nutrients 141
4.6.3 To Reduce the Cost of Agriculture 141
4.6.4 To Prevent Hazardous Elements in Animal Products 141
4.6.5 To Protect the Environment 141
4.6.6 Natural and Good Taste 142
4.7 Advantage of Organic Farming 142
4.7.1 Good Nutrition 142
4.7.2 Good Health 142
4.7.3 Freedom From Poison 142
4.7.4 Less Money 143
4.7.5 Great Taste 143
4.7.6 Environmental Safety 143
4.8 Disadvantages of Organic Farming 143
4.8.1 Lack of Information 143
4.8.2 Lack of Outline 143
4.8.3 Making More Money in the Beginning 144
4.9 Conclusion 144
Acknowledgement 144
References 144
5 Phosphorus Solubilizing Microorganisms 151
Rafig Gurbanov, Berkay Kalkanci, Hazel Karadag and Gizem Samgane
5.1 Phosphorus Pollution 152
5.2 Phosphate Solubilization 153
5.3 Microbial Mechanisms of Phosphate Solubilization 155
5.3.1 Organic Phosphate Solubilization 156
5.3.2 Inorganic Phosphate Solubilization 156
5.4 Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria 158
5.5 Phosphate-Solubilizing Fungi 160
5.5.1 Phosphate-Solubilizing Fungi as Plant Growth Promoters 162
5.5.2 The Methods of using Phosphate-Solubilizing Fungi in Agriculture 164
5.6 Bacteria-Fungi Consortium for Phosphate Solubilization 165
5.7 Conclusions 167
References 167
6 Exophytical and Endophytical Interactions of Plants and Microbial Activities 183
A. Mbotho, D. Selikane, J.S. Sefadi and M.J. Mochane
6.1 Introduction 184
6.2 Beneficial Interactions 185
6.2.1 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 186
6.2.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Microorganisms 189
6.2.3 Rhizobia 193
6.2.4 Endophytes 194
6.3 Pathogenic (Harmful) Interactions 194
6.3.1 Oomycetes 195
6.3.2 Fungi 198
6.3.3 Bacteria 199
6.3.4 Viruses 200
6.4 Conclusion 203
References 204
7 Biofertilizer Formulations 211
Sana Saif, Zeeshan Abid, Muhammad Faheem Ashiq, Muhammad Altaf and Raja Shahid Ashraf
List of Abbreviations 212
7.1 Introduction 212
7.1.1 Evolution of Biofertilizers 212
7.1.2 Biofertilizers: A Sustainable Approach 213
7.2 Biofertilizer Formulations 215
7.2.1 Selection of Strain 215
7.2.1.1 Microbial Strains 215
7.3 Types of Formulations 227
7.3.1 Carrier-Based/Powder Formulations 230
7.3.1.1 Selection of Carrier Material 230
7.3.1.2 Sterilization of Carrier 235
7.3.2 Granular Formulations 236
7.3.3 Liquid Formulations 236
7.3.3.1 Inoculant Preparation 237
7.3.3.2 Common Additives 238
7.3.4 Cell Immobilization 239
7.3.4.1 Polymer Entrapped Formulations 239
7.3.4.2 Advantages and Constrains 243
7.3.5 Fluid Bed-Dried Formulation 243
7.3.6 Mycorrhizal Formulations 244
7.4 Stickers 246
7.5 Additives 246
7.6 Packaging 246
7.7 Conclusion 247
References 247
8 Scoping the Use of Transgenic Microorganisms as Potential Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Safety 257
Vasavi Rama Karri and Nirmala Nalluri
8.1 Introduction 258
8.2 Role of Nitrogen in Plant Growth and Development 260
8.2.1 Microorganisms Involved in Nitrogen Fixation 260
8.3 Importance of Phosphorus 261
8.3.1 Microbes Involved in Phosphate Solubilization 262
8.3.2 Reducing the pH of Soil 262
8.3.3 Mineralization 263
8.3.4 Chelation 263
8.3.5 Promotion of Plant Growth by PSMs 263
8.3.6 Approach of Using PSMs as Biofertilizer and the Future Perspective 264
8.4 Significance of Potassium (K) 265
8.4.1 Microorganisms Involved in Potassium Hydrolyzation 265
8.4.2 Effect of KSB on Plant Growth and Yield 266
8.4.3 Abilities and Objections of K Solubilizing Bacteria 266
8.5 Biofertilizers Used in Agriculture 267
8.5.1 Mycorrhiza 268
8.5.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) 268
8.6 Role of Biotechnology in Agricultural Sector 268
8.6.1 Development of Potent Microbial Strains Through Genetic Engineering Approach to Produce Efficient Biofertilizers 269
8.6.2 Genetically Altered Transgenic Azotobacter vinelandii as an Effective Diazotrophs Biofertilizer 270
8.6.3 Phytostimuators and Biofertilizers 271
8.6.4 Azospirillum 272
8.6.5 Generation of Genetically Modified Transgenic Azospirillum Strains With Enhanced Levels of Phytoharmone Secretion 274
8.6.6 Development of Rhizobium Strains With Increased Competitiveness by Genetic Modification 275
8.6.7 Effect of GM Rhizobial strains on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) Fungi 278
8.6.8 Release of Genetically Manipulated Rhizobium for Field Trails 279
8.7 Conclusion 280
Acknowledgements 281
References 281
9 Biofertilizer Utilization in Agricultural Sector 293
Osikemekha Anthony Anani, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Osayomwanbo Osarenotor and Inamuddin
9.1 Introduction 294
9.2 Application of Biofertilizer as Bioaugmentation Agent for Bioremediation of Heavily Polluted Soil 295
9.3 Advantages of Biofertilizer in Comparison With Synthetic Fertilizer 296
9.4 Specific Examples of a Biofertilizer for Crop Improvement in Agricultural Sector 298
9.5 Management of Biotic and Abiotic Stress 301
9.6 Combinatory Effect of Biofertilizer With Other Substance and Their Effect on Crops 303
9.7 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 305
References 306
10 Azospirillum: A Salient Source for Sustainable Agriculture 309
Rimjim Gogoi, Sukanya Baruah and Jiban Saikia
10.1 Introduction 309
10.1.1 The Genus Azospirillum 311
10.1.2 Properties of Azospirillum spp. 312
10.1.2.1 Chemotaxis 312
10.1.2.2 Aerotaxis 313
10.1.2.3 Formation of Cysts and Aggregates or Flocs 313
10.1.2.4 Survivability in Rhizosphere and Bulk Soil 314
10.1.2.5 Competition With Other Soil Microorganisms 316
10.1.2.6 Association With Plant Roots 316
10.2 Azospirillum and Induction of Stimulatory Effects for Promoting Plant Growth 318
10.3 Applications in Various Fields 320
10.4 Current Status 324
10.5 Challenges in Large-Scale Commercial Applications of Azospirillum Inoculants 327
10.6 Programs Employed for Enhanced Applications of Azospirillum Inoculants 328
10.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects 329
References 330
11 Actinomycetes: Implications and Prospects in Sustainable Agriculture 335
V. Shanthi
11.1 Introduction 336
11.2 Role in Maintaining Soil Fertility 338
11.2.1 Nitrogen Fixation 338
11.2.2 Phosphate Solubilization 340
11.2.3 Potassium Solubilization 342
11.3 Role in Maintaining Soil Ecology 342
11.4 Role as Biocontrol Agents 345
11.4.1 Production of Antibiotics 346
11.4.2 Production of Siderophores 348
11.4.3 Production of Hydrogen Cyanide 349
11.4.4 Production of Lytic Enzymes 349
11.5 Role as Plant Stress Busters 351
11.5.1 Resistance From Heavy Metal Toxicity 352
11.5.2 Resistance Against Drought/Water Deficit 354
11.5.3 Resistance Toward Salinity 355
11.6 Conclusion 355
11.7 Future Perspectives 356
References 357
12 Influence of Growth Pattern of Cyanobacterial Species on Biofertilizer Production 371
Jasti Tejaswi, Kaligotla Venkata Subrahmanya Anirudh, Lalitha Rishika Majeti, Viswanatha Chaitanya Kolluru and Rajesh K. Srivastava
12.1 Introduction 371
12.2 Habit and Habitat of Cyanobacteria 373
12.3 Morphology and Mode of Reproduction 373
12.4 Role of a Fertilizer in Plant Growth 375
12.4.1 Synthetic Fertilizers 376
12.4.2 Organic Fertilizers 377
12.4.3 Biofertilizer 377
12.5 Cyanobacteria as Biofertilizer 379
12.6 Production of Cyanobacteria 381
12.7 Methods for In Vitro Culture of Cyanobacteria 382
12.7.1 Macro- and Microelements 382
12.7.2 Temperature 383
12.7.3 Light and Cell Density 383
12.7.4 Media 383
12.8 Methods for Gene Transfer into Cyanobacteria 384
12.8.1 DNA-Mediated Transformation 385
12.8.2 Electroporation 385
12.8.3 Conjugation 386
12.8.4 Biolistic Method 386
12.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects 386
12.10 Abbreviations 387
References 388
13 Biofertilizers Application in Agriculture: A Viable Option to Chemical Fertilizers 393
Rajesh K. Srivastava
13.1 Introduction 394
13.2 Chemical Fertilizer 397
13.2.1 Customized Fertilizers 400
13.2.2 Fortified Fertilizer 400
13.3 Biofertilizers 400
13.3.1 Biocompost 403
13.3.2 Trichocard 404
13.3.3 Trichocard Production 405
13.3.4 Azotobacter 405
13.3.5 Phosphorus 406
13.3.6 Vermicompost 406
13.4 Conclusion 408
13.5 Abbreviations 408
References 408
14 Quality Control of Biofertilizers 413
Swati Agarwal, Sonu Kumari and Suphiya Khan
14.1 Introduction 413
14.2 Biofertilizer Requirement and Supply 414
14.3 Process of Biofertilizer Quality Control 416
14.4 Requirement of Quality Control 417
14.5 Standards for Biofertilizers Quality Control 419
14.6 Methods for Quality Testing 421
14.6.1 Microbiological Methods 422
14.6.2 Serological Methods 422
14.6.3 Molecular Methods 423
14.7 Conclusion 423
Acknowledgement 423
References 424
15 Biofertilizers: Characteristic Features and Applications 429
Tanushree Chakraborty and Nasim Akhtar
15.1 Introduction 430
15.2 Types of Biofertilizers 430
15.3 Characteristic Features and Applications of Biofertilizers 431
15.3.1 Cyanobacteria Biofertilizer 431
15.3.2 Actinomycetes 435
15.3.3 Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. Trifolii 436
15.3.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) 436
15.3.5 Bacillus thuringiensis 437
15.3.6 Microalgae 438
15.4 Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) and Fungus (PSF) 438
15.4.1 Azotobacter 439
15.4.2 Azospirillum 440
15.4.3 Paenibacillus 440
15.4.4 Phyllosphere Associated Methylobacterium 441
15.4.5 MO Plus Biofertilizer 441
15.5 Effect of Biofertilizer on Various Plants (Experimental Design) 442
15.5.1 Azotobacter spp. (AZT) and Azospirillum spp. (AZP) on Eucalyptus grandis 442
15.5.2 Bradyrhizobium Strains and Streptomyces griseoflavus on Some Leguminous, Cereal, and Vegetable Crops 443
15.5.3 Rhizobium and Rhizobacteria on Trifolium repens 444
15.5.4 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal and Phosphate Solubilizing Fungi on Coffee Plants 445
15.5.5 Glutamicibacter halophytocola KLBMP 5180
on Tomato Seedlings 446
15.6 Screening of Microbes for Biofertilizer 447
15.6.1 Screening for Phosphate Solubilization 447
15.6.2 Screening for Potassium Solubilizing 447
15.6.3 Screening for Nitrogen-Fixing 448
15.6.4 Screening for Zinc Solubilization 448
15.6.5 Screening for Ammonia Production 448
15.6.6 Screening for Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) Production 448
15.6.7 Screening for Siderophores 448
15.6.8 Screening for Auxin Production 449
15.6.9 Screening for Gibberellic Acid Production 449
15.6.10 Screening for Production of Chitinase 449
15.7 Limitations of Biofertilizers 449
15.8 Success of Biofertilizer 450
15.9 Debottlenecking 453
15.10 Optimization of Biofertilizer 456
15.10.1 Optimization of Phosphate Solubilization 456
15.11 Concomitant of Biofertilizer 458
15.12 New Approach 458
15.13 Conclusion and Future Prospects 459
References 460
16 Fabrication Approaches for Biofertilizers 491
Andrew N. Amenaghawon, Chinedu L. Anyalewechi and Heri Septya Kusuma
16.1 Introduction 492
16.2 Biofertilizers 492
16.3 Types of Biofertilizers 493
16.3.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Biofertilizers 493
16.3.1.1 Rhizobium 494
16.3.1.2 Azospirillum 494
16.3.1.3 Azotobacter 495
16.3.2 Phosphorus-Solubilizing Biofertilizers 495
16.3.3 Phosphate-Mobilizing Biofertilizer (Mycorrhizae) 496
16.3.4 Potassium Biofertilizer 497
16.3.5 Growth-Promoting Biofertilizers 497
16.3.6 Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) 498
16.4 Preparation Approaches for Biofertilizers 499
16.4.1 Inoculant Formulation 499
16.4.2 Carriers for Biofertilizer Preparation 500
16.4.2.1 Sterilized Carriers 500
16.4.3 Carrier Form 501
16.5 Methods of Biofertilizer Formulation 501
16.5.1 Solid-Based Carrier Bioformulation 501
16.5.1.1 Peat Formulations 502
16.5.2 Liquid Inoculants Formulation 503
16.5.3 Polymer-Based Formulation 504
16.5.3.1 Alginate Formulations 504
16.5.4 Fluidized Bed Dried Formulation 504
16.5.5 Particles From Gas Saturated Solutions (PGSS) Method 505
16.5.6 Bionanoformulations 505
16.6 Application Modes for Biofertilizers 506
16.6.1 Seed Treatment 506
16.6.2 Seedling Root Dipping 506
16.6.3 Soil Application 507
16.7 Factors Affecting the Preparation of Biofertilizers 507
16.8 Beneficial Effects of Biofertilizers 508
16.9 Challenges and Limitations of Biofertilizers 509
16.10 Future Prospects 509
16.11 Conclusion 510
References 511
17 Biofertilizers From Waste 517
Rafaela Basso Sartori, Ihana Aguiar Severo, lisson Santos de Oliveira, Paola Lasta, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes
17.1 Introduction 518
17.2 Waste Sources 519
17.3 Technologies for Waste Treatment 521
17.3.1 Conventional Technologies 521
17.3.2 Emerging Technologies 522
17.3.2.1 Nutrients Recovery From Wastes by Microalgae 523
17.3.2.2 Overall Process Operations 526
17.4 Main Applications of Microalgae Biofertilizers 528
17.4.1 Fertility and Soil Quality 528
17.4.1.1 Nitrogen Fixation 528
17.4.1.2 Carbon Sequestration 529
17.4.1.3 Soil Organic Matter, Improvement, and Recovery 530
17.4.2 Promotion of Plant Growth, Disease, and Pest Control 531
17.4.2.1 Plant Colonization and Hormone Production 531
17.4.2.2 Disease and Pest Control 532
17.5 Conclusion and Recommendations 532
References 533
18 Biofertilizers Industry Profiles in Market 541
Kashish Gupta
18.1 Biofertilizers and Biofertilizer Technology 541
18.1.1 Benefits of Different Biofertilizers 542
18.2 Limitations in Usage of Biofertilizers 543
18.3 Biofertilizer Market Segments 544
18.4 Biofertilizers Market Drivers in India 546
18.5 Present Scenario of Biofertilizer Market 547
18.6 Key Players of Biofertilizers in Indian Market 549
18.7 Problems in Promotion of Biofertilizer 550
18.8 Popular Marketed Biofertilizers in Indian Market 553
18.9 Recent Trends in Biofertilizer: Liquid Biofertilizer 554
18.9.1 Specialties of Liquid Biofertilizer 554
18.10 Conclusion and Future Scope 555
References 556
19 Case Study on Biofertilizer Utilization in African Continents 561
Osikemekha Anthony Anani and Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
19.1 Introduction 562
19.2 Specific Examples of Biofertilizer for Crop Improvement, Environmental Bioremediation, and Their Advantages and Challenges in Africa 563
19.3 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 570
References 570
20 Biofertilizers: Prospects and Challenges for Future 575
Tanushree Chakraborty and Nasim Akhtar
20.1 Introduction 576
20.2 Definition 579
20.2.1 Helper Bacteria 579
20.2.2 The Point of Difference 580
20.3 Advances in Biofertilizer 580
20.4 Preparation of Biofertilizer 581
20.5 The Carrier Materials 581
20.6 Production System of Biofertilizer 582
20.7 Mechanism of Growth-Promoting Activity of Biofertilizers 583
20.8 Advantages and Limitations 584
20.9 Future Aspects 584
20.10 Conclusion 585
References 586
21 Biofertilizers: Past, Present, and Future 591
Mukta Sharma and Manoj Sharma
21.1 Introduction 592
21.2 Biofertilizer: A Brief History 593
21.3 Biofertilizer Classification 594
21.4 Different Paradigms of Biofertilizers 596
21.4.1 Impregnation of Fertilizers and Fertilizer Use Efficiency 596
21.4.2 Inoculants of Mixtures of Microorganisms 597
21.4.3 Different Formulations of Inoculants 597
21.4.4 Inoculant Carrier 598
21.4.5 Biofertilizer Carriers and Liquid Formulations 599
21.4.6 Controlled Release Techniques: Encapsulation, Lyophilization, and Drying 600
21.5 Biofertilizers: Current Status 601
21.6 Biofertilizers: Future Paradigm 601
21.7 Conclusion 602
References 603
22 Algal Biofertilizer 607
Muhammad Mudassir Iqbal, Gulzar Muhammad, Muhammad Shahbaz Aslam, Muhammad Ajaz Hussain, Zahid Shafiq and Haseeba Razzaq
22.1 Introduction 608
22.2 Algae and Algal Biofertilizers 609
22.2.1 Algae is a Polyphyletic Functional Group 609
22.2.2 Multifaceted Role of Algal Biofertilizer in Sustainable Cultivation 610
22.2.3 Biostimulants From Algae 612
22.3 Techniques of Application of Algal Biofertilizer 613
22.3.1 Algal Extracts as Biofertilizer 613
22.3.2 Addition of Algal Strains and Algal Biofertilizer to Soil 619
22.4 Cultivation of Algae and Production of Algal Biofertilizer 625
22.5 Conclusion 630
References 630
Index 637
