| An Introduction | p. 1 |
| Apparatus | p. 5 |
| The atomic force microscope | p. 5 |
| Piezoelectric scanners | p. 8 |
| Probes and cantilevers | p. 9 |
| Cantilever geometry | p. 10 |
| Tip shape | p. 12 |
| Tip functionality | p. 13 |
| Sample holders | p. 14 |
| Liquid cells | p. 14 |
| Detection methods | p. 15 |
| Optical detectors: laser beam deflection | p. 16 |
| Optical detectors: interferometry | p. 17 |
| Electrical detectors: electron tunnelling | p. 18 |
| Electrical detectors: capacitance | p. 19 |
| Electrical detectors: piezoelectric cantilevers | p. 20 |
| Control systems | p. 21 |
| AFM electronics | p. 21 |
| Operation of the electronics | p. 24 |
| Feedback control loops | p. 25 |
| Design limitations | p. 28 |
| Enhancing the performance of large scanners | p. 29 |
| Vibration isolation: thermal and mechanical | p. 29 |
| Calibration | p. 30 |
| Piezoelectric scanner non-linearity | p. 31 |
| Tip related factors | p. 32 |
| Determining cantilever force constants | p. 34 |
| Calibration standards | p. 35 |
| Tips for scanning a calibration specimen | p. 36 |
| Integrated AFMs | p. 37 |
| Combined AFM-light microscope (AFM-LM) | p. 37 |
| 'Submarine' AFM-the combined AFM-Langmuir Trough | p. 38 |
| Combined AFM-surface plasmon resonance (AFM-SPR) | p. 38 |
| Cryo-AFM | p. 39 |
| Basic Principles | p. 44 |
| Forces | p. 44 |
| The Van der Waals force and force-distance curves | p. 44 |
| The electrostatic force | p. 47 |
| Capillary and adhesive forces | p. 48 |
| Double layer forces | p. 49 |
| Imaging modes | p. 50 |
| Contact dc mode | p. 50 |
| Non-contact ac modes | p. 51 |
| Error signal or deflection mode | p. 54 |
| Image types | p. 55 |
| Topographical | p. 55 |
| Frictional force | p. 56 |
| Phase | p. 56 |
| Substrates | p. 57 |
| Mica | p. 57 |
| Glass | p. 58 |
| Graphite | p. 58 |
| Common problems | p. 59 |
| Thermal drift | p. 59 |
| Multiple tip effects | p. 59 |
| Tip convolution and probe broadening | p. 61 |
| Sample roughness | p. 61 |
| Sample mobility | p. 63 |
| Imaging under liquid | p. 63 |
| Getting started | p. 64 |
| DNA | p. 64 |
| Troublesome large samples | p. 67 |
| Image optimisation | p. 69 |
| Grey levels and colour tables | p. 69 |
| Brightness and contrast | p. 70 |
| High and low pass filtering | p. 70 |
| Normalisation and plane fitting | p. 70 |
| Despike | p. 71 |
| Fourier filtering | p. 71 |
| Correlation averaging | p. 73 |
| Stereographs | p. 73 |
| Do your homework! | p. 74 |
| Macromolecules | p. 76 |
| Imaging methods | p. 76 |
| Tip adhesion, molecular damage and displacement | p. 76 |
| Depositing macromolecules onto substrates | p. 77 |
| Metal coated samples | p. 78 |
| Imaging in air | p. 79 |
| Imaging under non aqueous liquids | p. 80 |
| Binding molecules to the substrate | p. 83 |
| Imaging under water or buffers | p. 87 |
| Nucleic acids: DNA | p. 88 |
| Imaging DNA | p. 88 |
| DNA conformation, size and shape | p. 90 |
| DNA-protein interactions | p. 95 |
| Location and mapping of specific sites | p. 99 |
| Chromosomes | p. 101 |
| Nucleic acids: RNA | p. 104 |
| Polysaccharides | p. 105 |
| Imaging polysaccharides | p. 106 |
| Size, shape, structure and conformation | p. 108 |
| Aggregates, networks and gels | p. 113 |
| Cellulose, plant cell walls and starch | p. 118 |
| Proteoglycans | p. 123 |
| Proteins | p. 123 |
| Globular proteins | p. 124 |
| Antibodies | p. 129 |
| Fibrous proteins | p. 132 |
| Interfacial Systems | p. 160 |
| Introduction to interfaces | p. 160 |
| Surface activity | p. 160 |
| AFM of interfacial systems | p. 164 |
| The Langmuir trough | p. 164 |
| Langmuir-Blodgett film transfer | p. 166 |
| Sample preparation | p. 168 |
| Cleaning protocols: glassware and trough | p. 168 |
| Substrates | p. 169 |
| Performing the dip | p. 171 |
| Phospholipids | p. 172 |
| AFM studies | p. 174 |
| Modification of phospholipid bilayers with the AFM | p. 174 |
| Studying intrinsic bilayer properties by AFM | p. 176 |
| Ripple phases in phospholipid bilayers | p. 179 |
| Mixed phospholipid films | p. 182 |
| Effect of supporting layers | p. 185 |
| Dynamic processes of phopholipid layers | p. 187 |
| Liposomes and intact vesicles | p. 190 |
| Lipid-protein mixed films | p. 192 |
| Miscellaneous lipid films | p. 196 |
| Interfacial protein films | p. 197 |
| Specific precautions | p. 197 |
| AFM studies of interfacial protein films | p. 199 |
| Ordered Macromolecules | p. 209 |
| Three dimensional crystals | p. 209 |
| Crystalline cellulose | p. 209 |
| Protein crystals | p. 211 |
| Nucleic acid crystals | p. 214 |
| Viruses and virus crystals | p. 215 |
| Two dimensional protein crystals | p. 217 |
| What does AFM have to offer? | p. 218 |
| Sample preparation: membrane proteins | p. 220 |
| Sample preparation: soluble proteins | p. 220 |
| AFM studies of 2D membrane protein crystals | p. 224 |
| Purple membrane | p. 224 |
| Gap junctions | p. 227 |
| Photosynthetic protein membranes | p. 229 |
| ATPase in kidney membranes | p. 230 |
| OmpF porin | p. 230 |
| Bacterial S layers | p. 232 |
| Bacteriophage [phis]29 head-tail connector | p. 235 |
| Gas vesicle protein | p. 237 |
| AFM studies of 2D crystals of soluble proteins | p. 238 |
| Imaging conditions | p. 240 |
| Electrostatic considerations | p. 242 |
| Cells, Tissue and Biominerals | p. 254 |
| Imaging methods | p. 254 |
| Sample preparation | p. 255 |
| Force mapping and mechanical measurements | p. 257 |
| Microbial cells: bacteria, spores and yeasts | p. 264 |
| Bacteria | p. 264 |
| Yeasts | p. 267 |
| Blood cells | p. 269 |
| Erythrocytes | p. 269 |
| Leukocytes and lymphocytes | p. 271 |
| Platelets | p. 272 |
| Neurons and Glial cells | p. 273 |
| Epithelial cells | p. 275 |
| Non-confluent renal cells | p. 278 |
| Endothelial cells | p. 279 |
| Cardiocytes | p. 281 |
| Other mammalian cells | p. 283 |
| Plant cells | p. 285 |
| Tissue | p. 289 |
| Embedded sections | p. 290 |
| Embedment-free sections | p. 291 |
| Hydrated sections | p. 292 |
| Freeze-fracture replicas | p. 293 |
| Immunolabelling | p. 293 |
| Biominerals | p. 294 |
| Bone, tendon and cartilage | p. 294 |
| Teeth | p. 295 |
| Shells | p. 297 |
| Other Probe Microscopes | p. 311 |
| Overview | p. 311 |
| Scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) | p. 311 |
| Scanning near-field optical microscope (SNOM) | p. 314 |
| Scanning ion conductance microscope (SICM) | p. 317 |
| Scanning thermal microscope (SThM) | p. 318 |
| Optical tweezers and the photonic force microscope (PFM) | p. 319 |
| SPM books | p. 323 |
| Index | p. 324 |
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