| Acknowledgements | p. xiii |
| An Introduction | p. 1 |
| Apparatus | p. 5 |
| The atomic force microscope | p. 5 |
| Piezoelectric scanners | p. 7 |
| Probes and cantilevers | p. 10 |
| Cantilever geometry | p. 10 |
| Tip shape | p. 12 |
| Tip functionality | p. 14 |
| Sample holders | p. 14 |
| Liquid cells | p. 15 |
| Detection methods | p. 16 |
| Optical detectors: laser beam deflection | p. 16 |
| Optical detectors: interferometry | p. 18 |
| Electrical detectors: electron tunnelling | p. 19 |
| Electrical detectors: capacitance | p. 20 |
| Electrical detectors: piezoelectric cantilevers | p. 21 |
| Control systems | p. 21 |
| AFM electronics | p. 21 |
| Operation of the electronics | p. 24 |
| Feedback control loops | p. 25 |
| Design limitations | p. 27 |
| Enhancing the performance of large scanners | p. 28 |
| Vibration isolation: thermal and mechanical | p. 28 |
| Calibration | p. 30 |
| Piezoelectric scanner non-linearity | p. 30 |
| Tip related factors: convolution | p. 31 |
| Calibration standards | p. 32 |
| Tips for scanning a calibration specimen | p. 33 |
| Integrated AFMs | p. 34 |
| Combined AFM-light microscope (AFM-LM) | p. 34 |
| 'Submarine' AFM - the combined AFM-Langmuir Trough | p. 35 |
| Combined AFM-surface plasmon resonance (AFM-SPR) | p. 36 |
| Cryo-AFM | p. 36 |
| Basic Principles | p. 41 |
| Forces | p. 41 |
| The Van der Waals force and force-distance curves | p. 41 |
| The electrostatic force | p. 44 |
| Capillary and adhesive forces | p. 44 |
| Double layer forces | p. 46 |
| Imaging modes | p. 47 |
| Contact dc mode | p. 47 |
| Ac modes: Tapping and non-contact | p. 47 |
| Deflection mode | p. 54 |
| Image types | p. 55 |
| Topography | p. 55 |
| Frictional force | p. 56 |
| Phase | p. 56 |
| Substrates | p. 58 |
| Mica | p. 58 |
| Glass | p. 58 |
| Graphite | p. 58 |
| Common problems | p. 59 |
| Thermal drift | p. 59 |
| Multiple tip effects | p. 59 |
| The 'pool' artifact | p. 61 |
| Optical interference on highly reflective samples | p. 61 |
| Sample roughness | p. 62 |
| Sample mobility | p. 63 |
| Imaging under liquid | p. 64 |
| Getting started | p. 65 |
| DNA | p. 65 |
| Troublesome large samples | p. 68 |
| Image optimisation | p. 70 |
| Grey levels and colour tables | p. 70 |
| Brightness and contrast | p. 71 |
| High and low pass filtering | p. 71 |
| Normalisation and plane fitting | p. 71 |
| Despike | p. 71 |
| Fourier filtering | p. 72 |
| Correlation averaging | p. 73 |
| Stereographs and anaglyphs | p. 73 |
| Do your homework! | p. 74 |
| Macromolecules | p. 76 |
| Imaging methods | p. 76 |
| Tip adhesion, molecular damage and displacement | p. 76 |
| Depositing macromolecules onto substrates | p. 77 |
| Metal coated samples | p. 78 |
| Imaging in air | p. 79 |
| Imaging under non-aqueous liquids | p. 80 |
| Binding molecules to the substrate | p. 81 |
| Imaging under water or buffers | p. 85 |
| Nucleic acids: DNA | p. 86 |
| Imaging DNA | p. 87 |
| DNA conformation, size and shape | p. 88 |
| DNA-protein interactions | p. 94 |
| Location and mapping of specific sites | p. 99 |
| Chromosomes | p. 102 |
| Nucleic acids: RNA | p. 105 |
| Polysaccharides | p. 106 |
| Imaging polysaccharides | p. 107 |
| Size, shape, structure and conformation | p. 108 |
| Aggregates, networks and gels | p. 117 |
| Cellulose, plant cell walls and starch | p. 122 |
| Proteoglycans and mucins | p. 128 |
| Proteins | p. 130 |
| Globular proteins | p. 131 |
| Antibodies | p. 136 |
| Fibrous proteins | p. 139 |
| Interfacial Systems | p. 181 |
| Introduction to interfaces | p. 181 |
| Surface activity | p. 181 |
| AFM of interracial systems | p. 184 |
| The Langmuir trough | p. 185 |
| Langmuir-Blodgett film transfer | p. 186 |
| Sample preparation | p. 188 |
| Cleaning protocols: glassware and trough | p. 188 |
| Substrates | p. 189 |
| Performing the dip | p. 191 |
| Phospholipids | p. 192 |
| Early AFM studies of phospholipid films | p. 193 |
| Modification of phospholipid bilayers with the AFM | p. 194 |
| Studying intrinsic bilayer properties by AFM | p. 196 |
| Ripple phases in phospholipid bilayers | p. 199 |
| Mixed phospholipid films | p. 202 |
| Effect of supporting layers | p. 205 |
| Dynamic processes of phopholipid layers | p. 208 |
| Liposomes and intact vesicles | p. 211 |
| Lipid-protein mixed films | p. 213 |
| High resolution studies of phospholipid bilayers | p. 217 |
| Miscellaneous lipid films/surfactant films | p. 219 |
| Interfacial protein films | p. 219 |
| Specific precautions | p. 220 |
| AFM studies of interfacial protein films | p. 222 |
| Chapter 6 | p. 231 |
| Three-dimensional crystals | p. 231 |
| Crystalline cellulose | p. 231 |
| Protein crystals | p. 232 |
| Nucleic acid crystals | p. 235 |
| Viruses and virus crystals | p. 236 |
| Two dimensional protein crystals: an introduction | p. 240 |
| What does AFM have to offer? | p. 241 |
| Sample preparation: membrane proteins | p. 243 |
| Sample preparation: soluble proteins | p. 244 |
| AFM studies of 2D membrane protein crystals | p. 246 |
| Purple membrane (bacteriorhodopsin) | p. 246 |
| Gap junctions | p. 249 |
| Photosynthelic protein membranes | p. 252 |
| ATPase in kidney membranes | p. 252 |
| OmpF porin | p. 253 |
| Bacterial Slayers | p. 254 |
| Bacteriophage Ø29 head-tail connector | p. 257 |
| AFM imaging of membrane dynamics | p. 259 |
| Force spectroscopy of membrane proteins | p. 261 |
| Gas vesicle protein | p. 261 |
| AFM studies of 2D crystals of soluble proteins | p. 262 |
| Imaging conditions | p. 264 |
| Electrostatic considerations | p. 266 |
| Cells, Tissue and Biominerals | p. 276 |
| Imaging methods | p. 276 |
| Sample preparation | p. 277 |
| Force mapping and mechanical measurements | p. 278 |
| Microbial cells: bacteria, spores and yeasts | p. 290 |
| Bacteria | p. 290 |
| Yeasts | p. 300 |
| Blood cells | p. 302 |
| Erythrocytes | p. 302 |
| Leukocytes and lymphocytes | p. 304 |
| Platelets | p. 304 |
| Neurons and Glial cells | p. 306 |
| Epithelial cells | p. 307 |
| Non-confluent renal cells | p. 309 |
| Endothelial cells | p. 311 |
| Cardiocytes | p. 313 |
| Other mammalian cells | p. 314 |
| Plant cells | p. 317 |
| Tissue | p. 321 |
| Embedded sections | p. 321 |
| Embedment-free sections | p. 322 |
| Hydrated sections | p. 323 |
| Freeze-fracture replicas | p. 324 |
| Immunolabelling | p. 324 |
| Biominerals | p. 325 |
| Bone, tendon and cartilage | p. 325 |
| Teeth | p. 327 |
| Shells | p. 328 |
| Other Probe Microscopes | p. 342 |
| Overview | p. 342 |
| Scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) | p. 342 |
| Scanning near-field optical microscope (SNOM) | p. 345 |
| Scanning ion conductance microscope (SICM) | p. 347 |
| Scanning thermal microscope (SThM) | p. 349 |
| Optical tweezers and the photonic force microscope (PFM) | p. 351 |
| Force Spectroscopy | p. 356 |
| Force measurement with the AFM | p. 356 |
| First steps in force spectroscopy: from raw data to force-distance curves | p. 357 |
| Quantifying cantilever displacement | p. 357 |
| Determining cantilever spring constants | p. 359 |
| Anatomy of a force-distance curve | p. 362 |
| Pulling methods | p. 364 |
| Intrinsic elastic properties of molecules | p. 364 |
| Molecular recognition force spectroscopy | p. 369 |
| Chemical force microscopy (CFM) | p. 373 |
| 9.4 | p. 374 |
| Colloidal probe microscopy (CPM) | p. 374 |
| How to make a colloid probe cantilever assembly | p. 377 |
| Deformation and indentation methods | p. 380 |
| Analysis of force-distance curves | p. 381 |
| Worm-like chain and freely jointed chain models | p. 382 |
| Molecular interactions | p. 384 |
| Deformation analysis | p. 387 |
| Adhesive force at pull-off | p. 388 |
| Elastic indentation depth, ¿, and contact radius, a, during deformation | p. 388 |
| Contact radius at zero load | p. 389 |
| Colloidal forces | p. 389 |
| SPM Books | p. 397 |
| Index | p. 399 |
| Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved. |
