Preface xi
About the Authors xii
1 Emerging Pollutants Remediation Water Systems: Biomass-Based Technologies 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Adsorption-Based Remediation 3
1.2.1 Biomass 3
1.2.2 Terrestrial and Marine Bioresources 3
1.2.3 Agro-Industrial Wastes 3
1.2.4 Activated Carbons (ACs) 4
1.2.5 Bioresources 4
1.2.6 Agro-Industrial Wastes 4
1.2.7 Activated Sludge (AS) 4
1.3 Bioremediation 4
1.3.1 Phytoremediation 4
1.3.2 Constructed Wetlands (CWs) 5
1.3.3 Microbial Remediation 5
1.3.4 Biocoagulants and Bioflocculants 5
1.4 Multi-Element Water Treatment Process 1
1.4.1 Membrane Bioreactors (MBRs): Biodegradation and Membrane Filtration 6
1.4.2 Activated Carbon and Ozone 7
1.5 Views and Recommendations 7
1.6 Conclusion 7
2 Genetic Engineering for Metal Tolerance and Accumulation 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Mechanisms of Metal Uptake and their Transport in Plants 14
2.2.1 Heavy Metals Tolerance (Mechanism) in Plants 15
2.2.2 Mechanisms of Avoidance in Plants 15
2.2.3 Binding of Metal to the Cell Wall 16
2.2.4 Mechanisms of Tolerance in Plants 16
2.3 Phytoremediation Using Genetic Engineering Stress-Tolerant Plants 18
2.3.1 Selenium Accumulation by Plants 20
2.3.2 Genetics of Plants Selenium Accumulation 21
2.3.3 Proteins for Metal Accumulation 24
2.4 Genetically Modified Plants Against Uptake, Tolerance and Detoxification of Heavy Metals 24
2.5 Cadmium Tolerance and Accumulation Mechanisms in Plants 26
2.5.1 Immobilization 27
2.5.2 Chelation Using Organic Acids and Amino Acids 27
2.5.3 Stress Peptide Synthesis 27
2.5.4 Cd Transporters 28
2.5.5 Genetic Analysis of Cadmium Tolerance and Accumulation in Plants 28
2.6 Heavy Metal ATPases (HMA) 30
3 Transgenic Approaches for Field Testing and Risk Assessment 42
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Transgenic Plants for Environmental Remediation 43
3.3 Degradation Pathways in Plants 44
3.4 Cytochrome P450s for Environmental Perspectives 44
3.5 Transgenic Plants for the Rhizoremediation of Organic Xenobiotics 45
3.6 Transgenic Plants to be Developed for the Phytoremediation of Some Other Priority Pollutants 46
3.7 Potential Genes for Phytoremediation 47
3.8 Hitting Transgenics to the Assessment: Plant Bioremediation 49
3.9 Potential Risks 50
3.9.1 Risk Assessment Theories and Practices 50
3.9.2 Contests Aimed at Multifaceted Risk Valuation 51
3.10 Future Research Guidelines 51
4 Role of RS and GIS in Water Quality Monitoring and Remediation 59
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Scope of RS and GIS in Water Monitoring 60
4.3 Assessment of Certain Impurities in Water With the Aid of RS and GIS 61
4.3.1 Suspended Load 61
4.3.2 Phytoplankton 62
4.3.3 Turbidity 62
4.4 Benefits of RS in Assessment of Water Quality 63
4.4.1 Soil Moisture Mapping for Floods and Droughts 63
4.4.2 Spatially Distributed Crop Water Use Estimation 64
4.4.3 Surface Water Quality Monitoring and Remediation 64
4.4.4 Groundwater Quality Monitoring and Remediation 65
4.5 Future Prospectus of RS and GIS Applications in Water Quality Studies 66
5 Advancement on Bioaugmentation: Strategies for Processing Industry Wastewater 71
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 Present Disposal Techniques and their Limitations 73
5.3 Bioaugmentation as an Emerging Strategy 73
5.3.1 Bioaugmentation Principle 75
5.3.2 Cell Bioaugmentation 75
5.3.3 Biological Augmentation as a Tool for Improving the Wastewater Treatment Efficiency 75
5.3.4 Role of Bioaugmentation in Removing Recalcitrant Pollutants from Industrial Wastewater 76
5.4 Bioaugmentation Applications 76
5.4.1 Removal of Compounds 76
5.4.2 Removal of Lignin 77
5.4.3 Pyridine and Quinoline 77
5.4.4 Cyanides 78
5.4.5 Nicotine 78
5.5 Bioaugmentation Technologies and their Limitations 78
5.5.1 Grazing of Protozoans 79
5.5.2 Inoculum Size 79
5.5.3 Bacteriophage Infection 79
5.6 Strategies for Improving the Effectiveness of Bioaugmentation 80
5.6.1 Immobilizing the Cells in Bioaugmentation 80
5.6.2 Quorum Sensing 80
5.6.3 Gene Transfer and Genetically Modified Microorganisms 81
5.7 Bioaugmentation and Nanotechnology 81
5.8 Future Prospects 82
5.9 Conclusion 82
6 Photocatalysis in Relation to Water Remediation 89
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 Characteristics of Material 93
6.2.1 Homogeneous Photocatalysis 93
6.2.2 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 94
6.3 Consequence of Ultra Violet/Titanium Dioxide/Hydrogen Peroxide 95
6.3.1 Chlorophenol 95
6.3.2 2, 4-Dichlorophenol 95
6.3.3 2, 4, 6- Trichlorophenol 96
6.4 Obstacles for Applicability 97
6.4.1 Advancement of Photocatalytic Materials 97
6.4.2 Photocatalytic Reactor Design and System Evaluation 97
6.5 Strategies for Improving Research Outcomes 98
7 Biochemical Systems: Cathode Advanced Wastewater Treatment 103
7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Cathodic Catalysis in BES and Implications for Catalyst Design 104
7.2.1 Cathodic Catalysis Characteristic in BES 104
7.2.2 Operation Environment 105
7.2.3 Wastewater Electrolyte 105
7.2.4 Cathode Over Potential and Catalysis in BES 106
7.2.5 Photo-Aided Cathodic Catalysis 106
7.3 Wastewater Treatment 107
7.3.1 Highly Biodegradable Wastewater 107
7.3.2 Complex/Low Biodegradable Wastewater 107
7.3.3 Integrated Process for Additional Treatment 108
7.4 Current Bottlenecks and Challenges for BES 108
7.5 Future Directions 111
8 Nanotechnology: Environmental Sustainable Solutions for Wastewater Treatment 116
8.1 Introduction 116
8.2 Water Nanotechnology 118
8.2.1 Adsorption and Separation 118
8.2.2 Catalysis 118
8.2.3 Disinfection 119
8.2.4 Sensing 119
8.2.5 Carbon-Based Nanoadsorbents 119
8.2.6 Metal-Based Nanoadsorbents 120
8.2.7 Polymer-Based Nanoadsorbents 121
8.3 Zeolites 121
8.4 Magnetic Nanocomposites 122
8.5 Nano Zero Valent Iron (nZVI) 122
8.6 Biosorbents 123
8.7 Treatment of Wastewater by Means of Membrane-based Techniques 124
8.8 Nanoparticles for Microbial Control and Disinfection 125
8.9 Antimicrobial Action of Nanoparticles 126
8.10 Potential Applications in Wastewater Treatment 127
8.11 Benefits of Nano-Biotechnology-Based Applications for Water Sustainability 127
8.12 Challenges and Future Outlook 128
9 Biotechnology Intercession in Phytoremediation 138
9.1 Introduction 138
9.2 Genetically Engineered Plants and Phytoremediation 138
9.3 Qualitative Phytoremediators 141
9.4 Biotechnology in Plant Mediated Remediation for Contaminants 141
9.5 Toxic Metals (TMs) 141
9.5.1 Arsenic (As) 142
9.5.2 Mercury (Hg) 143
9.5.3 Organic Pollutants (OPs) 143
9.5.4 Pesticides 144
9.5.5 Oil Spills (OSs) 144
9.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 145
10 Biofilms in Remediation: Current Trends and Future Perspectives 150
10.1 Introduction 150
10.2 Different Methods for Culturing Biofilms In Vitro 152
10.2.1 Static Microtiter Plate Assays 152
10.2.2 Tube Biofilms 152
10.2.3 Colony Biofilms 152
10.2.4 Biofilm Growth on Peg Lids 153
10.2.5 Rotating Disk and Concentric Cylinder Reactors 153
10.5 Methods for Characterization of Biofilms 154
10.5.1 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) 154
10.5.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 155
10.5.3 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 155
10.5.4 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 155
10.5.5 X-ray Spectroscopy 155
10.5.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 155
10.6 Biofilm-Based Bioremediation 156
10.7 Nitrogen Fixing Microorganisms in Lakes 158
10.8 Conclusion 159
11 Graphene-Based Absorbents for Wastewater Treatment 164
11.1 Introduction 164
11.2 Graphene-Based Materials 165
11.3 Graphene–Polymer Composites 165
11.4 Applications of Graphene as an Adsorbent in Water Remediation 170
11.4.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 171
11.4.2 Phenolic Compounds 172
11.4.3 Pharmaceutical Compounds 173
11.4.4 Pesticides 173
11.4.5 Dyes 174
11.5 Future Scope 175
12 Sewage Sludge: Use in Agriculture Practices 181
12.1 Introduction 181
12.2 Characteristics of Sewage Sludge 18
12.3 Activation of Sewage Sludge 183
12.4 Disposal of Sludge to Land 184
12.5 The Effect of Sludge Application on Soil Properties 185
12.5.1 Physico-Chemical Properties 185
12.5.2 Microbial Parameters of Soil 188
12.5.3 Concentration of Nutrients and the Heavy Metals in Sewage Sludge and Soil 191
12.6 Outlines of Nutrients and Harmful Metals in Sludge and Soil 192
12.7 The Accumulation of Nutrients by Crops 193
12.8 Future Views 194
13 Microbial Fuel Cells for the Treatment of Wastewater 203
13.1 Introduction 203
13.2 Biochemical Sustenance of Microbes 204
13.3 Functioning of MFCs 204
13.3.1 Uses of MFCs 205
13.3.2 Wastewater Treatment 205
13.3.3 Power Supply to Underwater Monitoring Devices 205
13.3.4 Power Supply to Remote Sensors 205
13.3.5 BOD Sensing 205
13.3.6 Hydrogen Manufacture 206
13.4 Microbial Fuel Cells Treatment of Wastewater 206
13.5 Microbial Fuel Cell Design 206
13.6 Construction of MFCs 207
13.6.1 Two Cell MFCs 207
13.6.2 Single Compartment MFCs 208
13.7 MFCs and Wastewater Remediation 208
13.7.1 Microbial Fuel Cells for Wastewater Treatment and Energy Generation 209
13.7.2 Treatment of Sewage and Electricity Production by Microbial Fuel Cells 209
13.7.3 Advanced MFCs for Wastewater Treatment 209
13.8 Wastewater Treatment by MFCs Coupled with Peroxicoagulation Process 210
13.9 MFCs and Generation of Bioelectricity 210
13.10 Electricigens in the MFCs 210
13.11 Future Prospects 210
13.12 Conclusion 211
14 Water Resources Planning and Management Paradigm Decision-Making 214
14.1 Introduction 214
14.2 Freshwater Stress 215
14.3 Globalization 215
14.4 Disparity in Supply and Demand 215
14.5 Planning and Management Approaches 3216
14.5.1 Top-Down Approach 216
14.5.2 Bottom-Up Approach 216
14.6 Integrated Water Resources Management 216
14.7 Water Management and Planning: Goals, Strategies, Decisions, and Scenarios 217
14.8 Systems Approaches to Water Resource System Planning and Decision-Making 218
14.9 Analysis and Implementation Framework 218
14.10 Decision-Making 219
Index 222
