Advanced Surface Coatings

1 Introduction.- 1.1 Surface engineering: the key to optimised performance.- 1.2 The main surface engineering technologies.- 1.2.1 Traditional surface engineering processes.- 1.2.2 Advanced surface engineering processes.- 1.3 Coating structure and characterisation.- References.- 2 Use of plasmas in deposition technologies.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Processing plasmas.- 2.2.1 DC-diode plasmas.- 2.2.2 RF discharges.- 2.3 Plasmas in the presence of magnetic fields.- 2.3.1 Applications of magnetic fields to plasmas.- 2.4 Microstructure of sputter deposited films.- 2.5 Conclusions.- References.- 3 Ion implantation and ion-assisted coating.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Beam-induced processes.- 3.3 Tribological applications.- 3.4 Applications to corrosion resistance.- 3.5 Equipment.- 3.6 The economics of ion beam processing.- 3.7 Conclusions.- References.- 4 Evaporation.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Practical aspects of evaporation processes.- 4.2.1 Resistively heated sources.- 4.2.2 Inductively heated sources.- 4.2.3 Electron beam evaporation.- 4.2.4 Arc evaporation.- 4.2.5 Laser-induced evaporation.- 4.3 Coating thickness distributions and uniformity.- 4.3.1 Lateral thickness uniformity.- 4.3.2 Front to back thickness uniformity.- 4.3.3 Absolute thickness fall-off.- 4.4 Evaporation principles.- 4.4.1 Evaporation of pure metals.- 4.4.2 Evaporation of alloys and compounds.- 4.5 Further considerations in electron beam evaporation.- 4.6 Selected applications for evaporative techniques.- 4.6.1 Large-area sheet coating.- 4.6.2 Bond coats and thermal barriers.- 4.7 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Sputter deposition.- 5.1 Introduction and historical perspective.- 5.2 Basic aspects of sputtering.- 5.2.1 Interactions on the target surface.- 5.2.2 Target considerations.- 5.2.3 Process parameter effects.- 5.3 Sputtering techniques.- 5.3.1 Reactive vs non-reactive processes.- 5.3.2 Diode sputtering.- 5.3.3 RF sputtering.- 5.3.4 Triode sputtering.- 5.3.5 Magnetron sputtering.- 5.3.6 'Unbalanced' magnetron sputtering.- 5.4 Plasma characteristics and ion bombardment.- 5.5 Process control.- 5.6 Applications of sputtered hard coatings.- 5.6.1 Hard coatings on cutting tools.- 5.6.2 Sputtered decorative coatings.- 5.6.3 Engineering components.- 5.7 Industrial coating systems.- 5.8 Future trends.- References.- 6 Plasma-assisted physical vapour deposition.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 The DC-diode argon discharge.- 6.2.1 The negative glow.- 6.2.2 The sheath regions.- 6.2.3 The basic mechanisms.- 6.3 Bombardment of the cathode in argon discharges.- 6.3.1 Ion and neutral energy distributions.- 6.3.2 Further ionisation considerations.- 6.4 Practical ion-plating discharges.- 6.4.1 Metal species.- 6.4.2 Reactive gas.- 6.4.3 Impurities.- 6.5 Practical considerations and system details.- 6.5.1 Commercial PAPVD systems.- 6.5.2 Coating variability.- 6.5.3 Process control.- 6.5.4 Adhesion.- 6.5.5 Other process factors.- 6.6 Applications and case studies.- 6.6.1 Industrial applications of PAPVD coatings.- 6.6.2 PAPVD vs CVD coatings in metal-cutting applications.- 6.6.3 Other applications.- 6.7 Conclusions.- References.- 7 Thermally activated chemical vapour deposition.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Principles of CVD.- 7.3 The CVD system.- 7.3.1 Gas-dispensing system.- 7.4 CVD reactors.- 7.4.1 Exhaust system.- 7.5 Design of a CVD process.- 7.5.1 Thermodynamics.- 7.5.2 Selection of precursors.- 7.6 Adhesion.- 7.6.1 Substrate.- 7.6.2 Gas flow dynamics.- 7.7 Rate-limiting steps.- 7.8 Nucleation.- 7.9 Deposition mechanisms.- 7.10 Morphology and microstructure.- 7.11 Applications of the CVD technique.- 7.12 Summary and concluding remarks.- References.- 8 Plasma-assisted chemical vapour deposition.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Discharge chemistry and physics.- 8.2.1 Basic processes occurring in a glow discharge plasma.- 8.2.2 Kinetic and thermodynamic factors.- 8.2.3 Plasma-1 Introduction.- 1.1 Surface engineering: the key to optimised performance.- 1.2 The main surface engineering technologies.- 1.2.1 Traditional surface engineering processes.- 1.2.2 Advanced surface engineering processes.- 1.3 Coating structure and characterisation.- References.- 2 Use of plasmas in deposition technologies.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Processing plasmas.- 2.2.1 DC-diode plasmas.- 2.2.2 RF discharges.- 2.3 Plasmas in the presence of magnetic fields.- 2.3.1 Applications of magnetic fields to plasmas.- 2.4 Microstructure of sputter deposited films.- 2.5 Conclusions.- References.- 3 Ion implantation and ion-assisted coating.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Beam-induced processes.- 3.3 Tribological applications.- 3.4 Applications to corrosion resistance.- 3.5 Equipment.- 3.6 The economics of ion beam processing.- 3.7 Conclusions.- References.- 4 Evaporation.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Practical aspects of evaporation processes.- 4.2.1 Resistively heated sources.- 4.2.2 Inductively heated sources.- 4.2.3 Electron beam evaporation.- 4.2.4 Arc evaporation.- 4.2.5 Laser-induced evaporation.- 4.3 Coating thickness distributions and uniformity.- 4.3.1 Lateral thickness uniformity.- 4.3.2 Front to back thickness uniformity.- 4.3.3 Absolute thickness fall-off.- 4.4 Evaporation principles.- 4.4.1 Evaporation of pure metals.- 4.4.2 Evaporation of alloys and compounds.- 4.5 Further considerations in electron beam evaporation.- 4.6 Selected applications for evaporative techniques.- 4.6.1 Large-area sheet coating.- 4.6.2 Bond coats and thermal barriers.- 4.7 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Sputter deposition.- 5.1 Introduction and historical perspective.- 5.2 Basic aspects of sputtering.- 5.2.1 Interactions on the target surface.- 5.2.2 Target considerations.- 5.2.3 Process parameter effects.- 5.3 Sputtering techniques.- 5.3.1 Reactive vs non-reactive processes.- 5.3.2 Diode sputtering.- 5.3.3 RF sputtering.- 5.3.4 Triode sputtering.- 5.3.5 Magnetron sputtering.- 5.3.6 'Unbalanced' magnetron sputtering.- 5.4 Plasma characteristics and ion bombardment.- 5.5 Process control.- 5.6 Applications of sputtered hard coatings.- 5.6.1 Hard coatings on cutting tools.- 5.6.2 Sputtered decorative coatings.- 5.6.3 Engineering components.- 5.7 Industrial coating systems.- 5.8 Future trends.- References.- 6 Plasma-assisted physical vapour deposition.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 The DC-diode argon discharge.- 6.2.1 The negative glow.- 6.2.2 The sheath regions.- 6.2.3 The basic mechanisms.- 6.3 Bombardment of the cathode in argon discharges.- 6.3.1 Ion and neutral energy distributions.- 6.3.2 Further ionisation considerations.- 6.4 Practical ion-plating discharges.- 6.4.1 Metal species.- 6.4.2 Reactive gas.- 6.4.3 Impurities.- 6.5 Practical considerations and system details.- 6.5.1 Commercial PAPVD systems.- 6.5.2 Coating variability.- 6.5.3 Process control.- 6.5.4 Adhesion.- 6.5.5 Other process factors.- 6.6 Applications and case studies.- 6.6.1 Industrial applications of PAPVD coatings.- 6.6.2 PAPVD vs CVD coatings in metal-cutting applications.- 6.6.3 Other applications.- 6.7 Conclusions.- References.- 7 Thermally activated chemical vapour deposition.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Principles of CVD.- 7.3 The CVD system.- 7.3.1 Gas-dispensing system.- 7.4 CVD reactors.- 7.4.1 Exhaust system.- 7.5 Design of a CVD process.- 7.5.1 Thermodynamics.- 7.5.2 Selection of precursors.- 7.6 Adhesion.- 7.6.1 Substrate.- 7.6.2 Gas flow dynamics.- 7.7 Rate-limiting steps.- 7.8 Nucleation.- 7.9 Deposition mechanisms.- 7.10 Morphology and microstructure.- 7.11 Applications of the CVD technique.- 7.12 Summary and concluding remarks.- References.- 8 Plasma-assisted chemical vapour deposition.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Discharge chemistry and physics.- 8.2.1 Basic processes occurring in a glow discharge plasma.- 8.2.2 Kinetic and thermodynamic factors.- 8.2.3 Plasma-surface interactions.- 8.3 PACVD equipment requirements.- 8.4 Applications of PACVD.- 8.4.1 Wear-resistance coatings.- 8.4.2 Thermochemical processing.- 8.4.3 Deposition of mixtures and multilayer structures.- 8.5 Summary 215.- References.- 9 Thermal spraying.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Thermal spraying.- 9.2.1 Wire spraying.- 9.2.2 Electric arc spraying.- 9.2.3 Powder flame spraying.- 9.2.4 High-velocity combustion processes.- 9.2.5 Arc plasma processes.- 9.2.6 Other techniques.- 9.3 Substrates and surface preparation.- 9.4 Coating properties.- 9.5 Applications.- 9.6 Summary.- References.- 10 Laser surface treatment.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Practical aspects of laser processing.- 10.2.1 Types of laser and their operation.- 10.2.2 Surface condition.- 10.2.3 One-dimensional thermal heating and cooling.- 10.3 Laser techniques.- 10.3.1 Laser surface melting.- 10.3.2 Laser surface alloying.- 10.3.3 Laser cladding.- 10.3.4 Laser chemical vapour and physical vapour deposition.- 10.4 Current and future applications of laser processing.- 10.4.1 Surface texturing.- 10.4.2 Enhanced electroplating.- 10.4.3 Non-contact bending.- 10.4.4 Thermal deformation.- 10.4.5 Magnetic domain control.- 10.4.6 Particle injection.- 10.4.7 Stereolithography.- 10.5 Conclusions.- References.- 11 Characterisation of coatings and interfaces.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Electron spectroscopies.- 11.2.1 Photoelectron spectroscopy.- 11.2.2 Auger electron spectroscopy.- 11.3 Electron microscopies.- 11.4 Ion spectrometry and microscopy.- 11.4.1 Secondary ion mass spectrometry.- 11.4.2 Rutherford backscattering.- 11.5 Photospectroscopies and microscopies.- 11.5.1 Infrared spectroscopy.- 11.5.2 Raman spectroscopy.- 11.5.3 X-ray diffraction analysis.- 11.6 Conclusions.- References.- 12 Evaluation of coatings.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Mechanical property assessment.- 12.2.1 Assessment of coating hardness.- 12.2.2 Measurement of coating adhesion.- 12.2.3 Tribological assessment of coatings.- 12.3 Summary and future developments.- References.- 13 Market perspective and future trends.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Future directions in surface engineering.- 13.2.1 Future developments in process technology.- 13.2.2 Developments in process understanding.- 13.2.3 Design-related factors.- 13.3 New materials and future markets for surface engineering.- 13.3.1 Composite materials.- 13.3.2 High-temperature superconducting ceramics.- 13.3.3 Diamond and DLC films.- 13.3.4 Business opportunities.- References.