
Variation
A Central Concept in Biology
By: Brian K Hall, Benedikt Hallgrimsson
Hardcover | 24 June 2005
At a Glance
592 Pages
22.86 x 15.24 x 2.54
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- Provides an overview of current thinking on variation in evolutionary biology, functional morphology, and evolutionary developmental biology
- Written by a team of leading scholars specializing on the study of variation
- Reviews of statistical analysis of variation by leading authorities
- Key chapters focus on the role of the study of phenotypic variation for evolutionary, developmental, and post-genomic biology
Industry Reviews
| Foreword | p. xvii |
| Contributors | p. xix |
| Variation and Variability: Central Concepts in Biology | p. 1 |
| Variation from Darwin to the Modern Synthesis | p. 9 |
| Introduction | p. 9 |
| Variation before Darwin | p. 12 |
| Darwin and Variation | p. 13 |
| Alternative Theories of Variation and Evolution | p. 16 |
| Neo-Darwinism | p. 19 |
| The Evolutionary Synthesis | p. 22 |
| Conclusions | p. 25 |
| References | p. 26 |
| The Statistics of Variation | p. 29 |
| Abstract | p. 29 |
| Introduction | p. 30 |
| Absolute Variation: Univariate Case | p. 30 |
| Levene's Test | p. 31 |
| Smith's Test | p. 32 |
| Jackknifing | p. 33 |
| Absolute Variation: Multivariate Case | p. 34 |
| Relative Variation: Univariate Case | p. 40 |
| Relative Variation: Multivariate Case | p. 41 |
| Dimensionality of Variation | p. 42 |
| Tightness | p. 43 |
| Measurement Error and Single Specimens | p. 45 |
| References | p. 46 |
| Landmark Morphometrics and the Analysis of Variation | p. 49 |
| Introduction | p. 49 |
| Coordinate Data and the Coordinate System | p. 51 |
| The General Perturbation Model for Landmark Variation | p. 53 |
| Proper Elimination of Nuisance Parameters Using a Coordinate System Invariant Method of Estimation | p. 56 |
| Adding Assumptions to the Perturbation Model | p. 60 |
| Model 0: Isotropic Error Model | p. 61 |
| Model 1: [Sigma subscript K]=Independent Local Variation | p. 62 |
| Model 2: [Sigma subscript K]=Independent Modules | p. 63 |
| Model 3: [Sigma subscript K]=Co-dependent Modules | p. 64 |
| Conclusions | p. 67 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 68 |
| References | p. 68 |
| Variation in Ontogeny | p. 71 |
| Introduction | p. 71 |
| Measuring Variation: A Case Study | p. 74 |
| Data Analyzed | p. 74 |
| Levels of Variation in Data on Growth and Protein Malnutrition | p. 75 |
| Measuring within Individual Variation | p. 76 |
| Measuring among Individual Variation | p. 77 |
| Testing for Variation between Treatment Groups | p. 77 |
| Factor Differences for within Individual Variation | p. 78 |
| Factor Differences for among Individual Variation | p. 79 |
| Implications for Studies of Variation | p. 80 |
| Utility of Standard Laboratory Animal Models | p. 80 |
| Within Individual Variation | p. 80 |
| Between or among Individual Variation | p. 81 |
| Variation across Hierarchical Levels | p. 82 |
| Conclusions | p. 83 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 83 |
| References | p. 84 |
| Constraints on Variation from Genotype through Phenotype to Fitness | p. 87 |
| Introduction | p. 87 |
| RNA Evolutionary Model | p. 89 |
| Evolving Constraints on Variation in RNA | p. 91 |
| Mechanistic Constraints | p. 96 |
| The Spectrum of Mutational Constraints | p. 96 |
| The Evolution of Mutational Constraints | p. 99 |
| Epistatic Constraints | p. 102 |
| The Spectrum of Epistatic Constraints | p. 103 |
| The Evolution of Epistatic Constraints | p. 104 |
| Viability Constraints | p. 104 |
| Modularity: A Way Out of the Constraints | p. 105 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 107 |
| References | p. 107 |
| Developmental Origins of Variation | p. 113 |
| Introduction | p. 113 |
| Does Intrinsic Developmental Variation Exist? | p. 115 |
| Intrinsic Variation in Different Environments | p. 118 |
| Potential Origins of Intrinsic Developmental Variation | p. 118 |
| Noise | p. 118 |
| An Example of Noise in Eukaryotic Transcription | p. 119 |
| Noisy bicoid Gene Expression in Fruit Flies | p. 120 |
| Noise in Asymmetry Production | p. 120 |
| Noisy Implication for Evolution | p. 120 |
| Networks | p. 121 |
| Morphogenetic Fields: A Potential Source of Variation | p. 125 |
| Implications | p. 126 |
| Summary | p. 127 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 128 |
| References | p. 128 |
| Canalization, Cryptic Variation, and Developmental Buffering: A Critical Examination and Analytical Perspective | p. 131 |
| Introduction | p. 132 |
| A Review of the Reviews | p. 133 |
| Empirical Concerns for the Study of Canalization | p. 134 |
| The Amount of Genetic Variation must be Controlled between Lines/Populations | p. 134 |
| The Need for Multiple, Independent Samples (Across Genotypes, Not Individuals) | p. 135 |
| Genetic Background must be Controlled for Comparisons between Treatments | p. 135 |
| Definitions of Canalization | p. 136 |
| Reaction Norm of the Mean (RxNM) Definition of Canalization | p. 137 |
| The Variation Approach to Canalization | p. 138 |
| Partitioning Sources of Variation | p. 139 |
| Variation within Individual (V[subscript WI]) | p. 140 |
| Variation between Individuals, within Genotype (V[subscript BI]) | p. 140 |
| Between-Line (Genetic) Variation (V[subscript G]) | p. 140 |
| Inferring Canalization: When is a Trait Canalized? | p. 140 |
| What are the Appropriate Tests for Making Statistical Inferences about Canalization? | p. 142 |
| In the Interim... | p. 144 |
| Analysis for the RxNM Approach | p. 144 |
| The Analysis of Cryptic Genetic Variation | p. 146 |
| Mapping Cryptic Genetic Variants | p. 147 |
| Is the Genetic Architecture of Cryptic Genetic Variation Different from that of Other Genetic Variation Involved with Trait Expression? | p. 149 |
| Now that I have All of this Cryptic Genetic Variation, What do I do with It? | p. 153 |
| The Future for Studies of Canalization | p. 154 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 155 |
| References | p. 155 |
| Mutation and Phenotypic Variation: Where is the Connection? Capacitators, Stressors, Phenotypic Variability, and Evolutionary Change | p. 159 |
| Abstract | p. 159 |
| Introduction: Variability and Limits | p. 160 |
| Mutators, Recombinators, Stressors, and Genetic Variability | p. 161 |
| Mutation | p. 161 |
| Recombination | p. 164 |
| The Impact of New Mutants and Recombinants: Canalization and Capacitators | p. 166 |
| In Search of Capacitators: Genes that Influence Developmental Stability and Canalization | p. 168 |
| Capacitators, Stressors, and Quantitative Variation | p. 175 |
| Do We Need Variability Generators? | p. 179 |
| Concluding Remarks: Experimental Programs for Defining the Role of Variability Generators | p. 183 |
| References | p. 184 |
| Within Individual Variation: Developmental Noise versus Developmental Stability | p. 191 |
| Introduction | p. 191 |
| Causes of Developmental Noise | p. 193 |
| Causes of Developmental Noise at the Molecular Level | p. 194 |
| Causes of Developmental Noise at the Developmental Systems Level | p. 198 |
| Causes of Developmental Noise at the Organismal Level | p. 202 |
| Mechanisms of Developmental Stability | p. 203 |
| Mechanisms for Developmental Stability at the Molecular Level | p. 203 |
| Mechanisms for Developmental Stability at the Developmental Systems Level | p. 210 |
| Mechanisms for Developmental Stability at the Organismal Level | p. 212 |
| Implications | p. 214 |
| References | p. 215 |
| Developmental Constraints, Modules, and Evolvability | p. 219 |
| Abstract | p. 219 |
| Introduction | p. 220 |
| Evolvability and Constraints | p. 221 |
| Integration and Modularity | p. 224 |
| Developmental Origins of Covariation among Traits | p. 226 |
| Developmental Interactions and Pleiotropy | p. 229 |
| Evolution of Pleiotropy and Developmental Interactions | p. 231 |
| Modularity of Pleiotropic Effects: Inherent in Developmental Systems or Evolved Property? | p. 236 |
| From Pleiotropic Gene Effects to G Matrices | p. 238 |
| G Matrices, Constraints, and Evolutionary Dynamics | p. 239 |
| Perspective: Developmental Processes and Evolutionary Constraints | p. 241 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 242 |
| References | p. 242 |
| Developmental Regulation of Variability | p. 249 |
| Introduction | p. 249 |
| Empirical Patterns | p. 251 |
| The Ontogeny of Variation in Male Norway Rat Cranial Shape | p. 255 |
| Biological Patterns versus Artifacts | p. 257 |
| Morphological Sampling | p. 257 |
| Life History/Developmental Rate | p. 258 |
| Mechanisms Generating and Regulating Craniofacial Shape Variance | p. 259 |
| Targeted Growth | p. 261 |
| Organismal Developmental Timing | p. 264 |
| Variation in Relative Developmental Timing of Modules | p. 266 |
| Neural Regulation of Musculoskeletal Interactions | p. 268 |
| Canalized Shape as an Epiphenomenon | p. 270 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 272 |
| References | p. 272 |
| Role of Stress in Evolution: From Individual Adaptability to Evolutionary Adaptation | p. 277 |
| Introduction | p. 277 |
| Evolution of Response to Stress | p. 279 |
| Detection and Avoidance | p. 279 |
| Stress-Avoidance Strategies | p. 281 |
| Evolutionary Consequences of Stress | p. 282 |
| Stress-Induced Variation | p. 282 |
| Buffering, Accommodating, and Directing Stress-Induced Variation | p. 285 |
| Inheritance | p. 291 |
| Evolutionary Adaptation | p. 292 |
| Stress-Induced Evolution versus Stress-Induced Stasis | p. 293 |
| Conclusions | p. 293 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 294 |
| References | p. 294 |
| Environmentally Contingent Variation: Phenotypic Plasticity and Norms of Reaction | p. 303 |
| Introduction | p. 304 |
| Plasticity Concepts | p. 305 |
| Specific Types of Plasticity | p. 305 |
| Reaction Norms | p. 306 |
| Parental Effect Reaction Norms (Cross-Generational Plasticity) | p. 307 |
| Imprinted Reaction Norms | p. 307 |
| Iterated Reaction Norms | p. 308 |
| Dynamic Reaction Norms | p. 309 |
| The Genetic and Developmental Basis of Phenotypic Plasticity | p. 309 |
| Photomorphogenetic Plasticity in Plants | p. 310 |
| Adaptive Plasticity for Timing of Amphibian Metamorphosis | p. 311 |
| Mediation of Phenotypic Expression | p. 312 |
| Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Plasticity | p. 315 |
| How Plasticity Interacts with Conserved Developmental Patterns | p. 317 |
| Genetic Causation and the Butterfly Wing: A More Complicated Picture | p. 319 |
| The Same Networks May Give Rise to Both Plasticity and Constraint | p. 321 |
| What Effects Does Plasticity Have on Populations and Communities? | p. 322 |
| Research Agenda | p. 326 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 327 |
| References | p. 327 |
| Variation and Life-History Evolution | p. 333 |
| Introduction | p. 333 |
| Phenotypic Variation in a Constant Environment | p. 334 |
| Mutation-Selection Balance | p. 334 |
| Heterozygous Advantage | p. 336 |
| Antagonistic Pleiotropy | p. 338 |
| Frequency-Dependent Selection | p. 339 |
| Phenotypic Variation in a Stochastic Environment | p. 341 |
| Temporal Variation | p. 341 |
| Spatial Variation | p. 344 |
| Spatial and Temporal Variation | p. 345 |
| Predictable Environments | p. 347 |
| Temporal Variation | p. 352 |
| Spatial Variation | p. 354 |
| Concluding Comments | p. 354 |
| References | p. 355 |
| Antisymmetry | p. 359 |
| Introduction | p. 360 |
| Asymmetry Terminology | p. 361 |
| Terms for Subtle Asymmetries | p. 361 |
| Terms for Conspicuous Asymmetry in an Individual | p. 363 |
| Terms for the Orientation of Bilateral or Spiral Asymmetries | p. 363 |
| Terms for Conspicuous Asymmetries in a Population or Species | p. 364 |
| The History of Antisymmetry | p. 367 |
| Taxomonic Distribution and Functional Significance of Antisymmetry | p. 368 |
| Plants | p. 369 |
| Cnidaria | p. 369 |
| Mollusca | p. 370 |
| Annelida | p. 372 |
| Arthropoda: Chelicerata | p. 372 |
| Arthropoda: Crustacea | p. 373 |
| Arthropoda: Insecta | p. 374 |
| Brachiopoda | p. 374 |
| Bryozoa | p. 375 |
| Echinodermata | p. 375 |
| Chordata | p. 375 |
| Development and Regeneration of Asymmetry in Antisymmetric Species | p. 376 |
| Ontogeny | p. 376 |
| Regeneration of Missing Antimeres | p. 377 |
| Inheritance of Direction in Antisymmetric Species | p. 378 |
| Inheritance of Direction in Directionally Asymmetric Species | p. 381 |
| Evolutionary Significance of Antisymmetry | p. 382 |
| What Next? | p. 384 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 384 |
| Appendix | p. 385 |
| References | p. 390 |
| Variation in Structure and Its Relationship to Function: Correlation, Explanation, and Extrapolation | p. 399 |
| Abstract | p. 400 |
| Introduction | p. 400 |
| Background | p. 402 |
| Approaches to the Study of Structural Variation | p. 403 |
| Variation as an Observable Phenomenon | p. 404 |
| Variation and Taxonomic Utility | p. 404 |
| Variation Associated with Developmental Plasticity | p. 405 |
| Geographically Based Variation | p. 406 |
| In Situ Correlational Studies of the Relationship between Structural Variation and Functional Attributes | p. 408 |
| Trophic Polymorphism and Environmental Fluctuation | p. 408 |
| Clinal Variation | p. 411 |
| Microgeographic Variation | p. 414 |
| Ex Situ Studies of the Relationship between Structural Variation and Performance | p. 415 |
| Variation in Trophic Performance | p. 417 |
| Locomotor Performance | p. 418 |
| Fluctuating Asymmetry and Variation in Performance | p. 423 |
| Selection Experiments and the Investigation of the Limits of Variability | p. 424 |
| Other Measures of Structural and Functional Variation | p. 425 |
| Concluding Remarks | p. 426 |
| References | p. 428 |
| A Universal Generative Tendency toward Increased Organismal Complexity | p. 435 |
| Introduction | p. 435 |
| Internal Variance as Complexity | p. 438 |
| Three Simple Models | p. 441 |
| Model 1 | p. 441 |
| Model 2 | p. 443 |
| Model 3 | p. 445 |
| The Effect of Increased Dimensionality | p. 448 |
| Apparent Difficulties | p. 448 |
| Is There an Upward Bias in Real Lineages? | p. 449 |
| If So, the Principle Is Supported | p. 450 |
| If Not, Why Not? | p. 450 |
| Testing the Principle | p. 452 |
| A Reversal of Intuition | p. 452 |
| References | p. 453 |
| Variation and Versatility in Macroevolution | p. 455 |
| Principles | p. 455 |
| To Vary is Easy | p. 455 |
| Evolvability and Versatility | p. 456 |
| Examples | p. 460 |
| Elephantid Teeth | p. 460 |
| Disparity and Versatility in Sciuridae | p. 464 |
| Overview and Conclusion | p. 468 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 470 |
| References | p. 470 |
| Variation and Developmental Biology: Prospects for the Future | p. 475 |
| Introduction | p. 475 |
| Model Organisms: Expanding the Fold | p. 477 |
| Ecologically Significant Differences in Form between Species | p. 480 |
| How Many Ways to Make a Phenotype: Developmental Variation and Morphological Similarity | p. 485 |
| Intraspecific Developmental Variation: Canalization and Developmental Plasticity | p. 487 |
| Conclusions | p. 490 |
| References | p. 491 |
| Phenogenetics: Genotypes, Phenotypes, and Variation | p. 499 |
| Introduction | p. 499 |
| Mechanism versus Variation | p. 502 |
| From Genotype to Phenotype: Mechanism | p. 503 |
| A Quick Digression Concerning DNA Sequence: Arbitrary and Saturated | p. 504 |
| Pretranscriptional Mechanisms | p. 505 |
| Posttranscriptional Mechanisms | p. 508 |
| From Genotype to Phenotype: Variation | p. 510 |
| A Lexicographer's Nightmare: Canalization, Robustness, Plasticity, Polyphenism... | p. 510 |
| Developmental Process: Patterning Repeated Traits | p. 513 |
| Gene Regulation and the Evolution of Phenotypes | p. 515 |
| Phenogenetic Drift: The Role of Chance in the Evolution of Genotype-Phenotype Relationships | p. 516 |
| Summary | p. 517 |
| Acknowledgments | p. 518 |
| References | p. 518 |
| The Study of Phenotypic Variability: An Emerging Research Agenda for Understanding the Developmental-Genetic Architecture Underlying Phenotypic Variation | p. 525 |
| Introduction | p. 526 |
| Variability and the Biological Hierarchy | p. 527 |
| Components of Variability | p. 529 |
| Current Approaches to Understanding the Development-Genetic Architecture of Variability | p. 531 |
| Pattern-Based Approaches | p. 531 |
| Perturbation-Based Approaches | p. 533 |
| Model-Driven Approaches | p. 538 |
| A Developmental Systems Approach to Phenotypic Variability | p. 541 |
| The Regulation of Form in the Mouse Mandible | p. 542 |
| The Regulation of Outgrowth of the Facial Prominences in Mice | p. 546 |
| Conclusion | p. 547 |
| References | p. 548 |
| Index | p. 553 |
| Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved. |
ISBN: 9780120887774
ISBN-10: 0120887770
Published: 24th June 2005
Format: Hardcover
Language: English
Number of Pages: 592
Audience: College, Tertiary and University
Publisher: Academic Press
Country of Publication: US
Dimensions (cm): 22.86 x 15.24 x 2.54
Weight (kg): 0.89
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