Tree Transgenesis

Recent Developments

By: Matthias Fladung (Editor), Dietrich Ewald (Editor)

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Hardcover | 20 July 2006

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Hardcover
380 Pages

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23.5 x 15.88 x 1.91

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A continuous development in plant biotechnology including gene technology has been observable during the past 20 years. Different methods elaborated with model plants were also applied to forest trees on a larger scale. Whereas in the beginning the meaning of the term "plant biotechnology" embraced a wide variety of meanings like, e. g. , regeneration of plantlets via tissue culture, embryo rescue, somatic embryogenesis and gene transfer, the focus of this term has changed more and more. Nowadays, it is the transfer of genes which comes into mind when plant biotechnology is discussed, including of course the evaluation of all challenges and risks related to gene transfer methods. Compared with annual plants, especially in the field of agriculture, the work and the progress with transgenic trees is still in its infancy. Nevertheless, but often unnoticed by the scientific community, there are a few countries which already allow the commercial use of a restricted number of transgenic tree clones after different critical steps of approval. This and the ongoing improvement in transgenic research in trees led to the idea of preparing a summary of the present state of the art from different points of view. With the help of a number of authors directly or indirectly involved in tree transgenesis, this book was produced.

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Transgenic Trees in the World
Field Trials with Transgenic Trees - State of the Art and Developments	p. 3
Introduction	p. 3
Transgenic Trees in Test Tube and Field Trials	p. 3
Transgenic Trees for Improvement of Forestry	p. 6
Northern America	p. 6
Europe	p. 10
Latin America	p. 13
South Africa	p. 14
Australasia	p. 15
New Zealand	p. 15
Japan	p. 16
Vietnam	p. 16
China	p. 17
Fruit Trees	p. 18
North America	p. 18
Europe	p. 18
The Papaya Story	p. 20
New Applications of Transgenic Trees	p. 20
Conclusions	p. 21
References	p. 22
Transgenic Forest Trees in China	p. 25
Introduction	p. 25
Production of Insect Resistant Transgenic Forest Trees in China	p. 26
Transgenic Trees Tolerant to Environmental Stresses	p. 30
Sterile Transgenic Forest Trees	p. 31
Further Transformation Work on Forest Trees	p. 32
Field Tests of Transgenic Trees	p. 33
Commercial Use of Transgenic Forest Trees	p. 38
Rules and Regulations	p. 41
Conclusions	p. 41
References	p. 42
Modification of Perennial Fruit Trees	p. 47
Introduction	p. 47
General Overview of Transformed Fruit Trees	p. 48
Target Genes Introduced into Fruit Trees	p. 53
Abiotic-stress Tolerance	p. 54
Shortening of the Juvenile Phase	p. 54
Disease Resistance	p. 54
Insect Resistance	p. 54
Rootstock Improvement	p. 55
Fruit Improvement	p. 55
Progress in Genetic Transformation of Fruit Trees	p. 55
Apple	p. 55
Apricot	p. 56
Cherry	p. 56
Chestnut	p. 57
Citrus	p. 57
Grapevine	p. 58
Kiwifruit	p. 58
Papaya	p. 58
Peach	p. 59
Pear	p. 59
Persimmon	p. 60
Plum	p. 60
Walnut	p. 60
Others	p. 60
Conclusions	p. 61
References	p. 62
Genetic Transformation of Some Tropical Trees, Shrubs, and Tree-like Plants	p. 67
Introduction	p. 67
Genetic Transformation Studies	p. 68
Banana, Musa sp.	p. 68
Cocoa, Theobroma cacao L.	p. 76
Coffee, Coffea sp.	p. 78
Eucalyptus, Eucalyptus sp.	p. 81
Oil Palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq.	p. 84
Rubber Tree, Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.	p. 87
Conclusions	p. 90
References	p. 92
Wood and other Traits
Environmental Aspects of Lignin Modified Trees	p. 105
Introduction	p. 105
Lignin and Current Knowledge of Lignin Biosynthesis	p. 106
Lignin Modification in Genetically Engineered Trees	p. 108
Environmental Aspects of Processing Lignin Modified Trees in the Pulp and Paper Industry	p. 109
Ecological Interactions of Lignin Modified Trees	p. 111
Insect Herbivores	p. 111
Mycorrhizas	p. 114
Conclusions	p. 115
References	p. 117
Modification of Cellulose in Wood	p. 123
Introduction	p. 123
Modification of Lignin (and Cellulose) Content via "Lignin-enzymes"	p. 124
Modification of Cellulose Content via "Cellulose Genes"	p. 126
Cell Wall Formation and Cellulose Synthesis	p. 126
Cellulose Degradation	p. 128
Modification of Cellulose Fibre via "Hormone Genes"	p. 128
Conclusions	p. 132
References	p. 133
Heavy Metal Resistance and Phytoremediation with Transgenic Trees	p. 137
Introduction	p. 137
The Problem: Soil Contamination	p. 140
Some Specialists Can Deal with High Levels of Heavy Metals: Hyperaccumulators	p. 141
Dealing with High Concentration of Heavy Metals - Homeostasis, Tolerance, Detoxification	p. 142
The Impact of Glutathione in Stress Resistance	p. 143
Molecular Engineering to Improve the Performance of Plants in Phytoremediation	p. 147
The Use of Trees for Phytoremediation	p. 149
Conclusions	p. 151
References	p. 152
Transgenic Approaches to Engineer Nitrogen Metabolism	p. 157
Introduction	p. 157
Nitrogen Uptake, Assimilation and Related Pathways	p. 157
Nitrogen Uptake	p. 157
Nitrogen Assimilation	p. 159
Carbon Flux for Amino Acid Biosynthesis	p. 161
Relevance of N Metabolism in Trees	p. 162
Genetic Manipulation of Nitrogen Metabolism	p. 163
Studies in Model and Crop Plants	p. 163
Production of Transgenic Trees and Consequences of Gene Manipulation	p. 165
Enhanced Photosynthetic Metabolism and Vegetative Growth	p. 165
Increased N Use Efficiency	p. 168
Increased Resistance to Stress	p. 169
Increased Nitrogen Reserves	p. 169
The Importance of C/N Balance	p. 170
Conclusions	p. 172
References	p. 174
Biotic and Abiotic Resistances
Virus Resistance Breeding in Fruit Trees	p. 181
Introduction	p. 181
Importance of Viral Diseases	p. 181
Citrus Tristeza Virus (CTV) (Closteroviridae)	p. 182
Grapevine Viruses	p. 183
Prunus Viruses	p. 183
Papaya Ringspot Virus (PRSV) (Potyviridae)	p. 183
Cacao Swollen Shoot Virus (CSSV) (Caulimoviridae, genus Badnavirus)	p. 184
Conventional Breeding Efforts for Virus Resistance in Trees	p. 184
Classical Cross Protection	p. 186
Pathogen Derived Resistance (PDR)	p. 187
Transformation, Selection and Regeneration Approaches	p. 188
Description of Construct Design	p. 189
Survey of Virus Resistance in Transgenic Fruit Trees	p. 191
Conclusions	p. 193
References	p. 193
The Use of Genetic Transformation Procedures to Study the Defence and Disease Resistance Traits of Trees	p. 201
Introduction	p. 201
Ecological Background	p. 201
The Constitutive and Induced Defenses of Plants	p. 203
Constitutive Defenses	p. 203
Induced Direct Defenses	p. 205
Induced Indirect Defenses	p. 206
Wound Perception and Signaling	p. 208
The Elm Leaf Beetle System	p. 212
Bark Beetles and the Resin Defenses of Conifers	p. 213
Other Pest Syndromes of Conifers	p. 215
Genes and Pathways of Interest	p. 217
The Biochemistry and Genetics of Plant Volatile Emission	p. 217
The Biosynthesis of Terpenoids in Plants	p. 218
Further Approaches for Identifying Other Genes of Interest	p. 221
Advances in Understanding Tree Diseases from Introduced Novel Defensive Traits	p. 223
Studies with Exotic Diseases	p. 224
Conclusions	p. 225
References	p. 227
Fungal and Bacterial Resistance in Transgenic Trees	p. 235
Introduction	p. 235
Review of Current Approaches	p. 236
Chitinases	p. 236
Antimicrobial Peptides	p. 237
Short Amphipathic Cationic Peptides	p. 237
Cystein-rich Peptides	p. 239
Attacins	p. 240
Oxalate Oxidase	p. 240
RNA Interference (RNAi or Post-transcriptional Gene Silencing [PTGS])	p. 241
Plantibodies	p. 242
Other Resistance-enhancing Transgenes	p. 243
Next Steps	p. 244
Conclusions	p. 247
References	p. 247
Genetically Modified Trees Expressing Genes for Insect Pest Resistance	p. 253
Introduction	p. 253
The Insecticidal [delta]-Endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis and their Role in the Control of Insect Pests	p. 256
Transfer of Bt Genes into Forest Tree Species	p. 257
Transgenic Fruit Trees Expressing Bt Genes	p. 259
Plant Proteinase Inhibitors: A Useful Tool for Plant Defence Against Insect Predation	p. 259
Transfer of PI Genes into Forest and Fruit Trees	p. 260
Other Strategies to Obtain Insect Resistance in Forest and Fruit Trees	p. 262
Environmental Risk and Deployment Strategies for Genetically Engineered Insect-resistant Trees	p. 263
Field Trials with Insect-resistant GM Trees	p. 263
Toxicity and Allergenicity of Proteins Encoded by Genes for Insect Pest Resistance	p. 264
Development of Target Pests Resistant to GM Trees	p. 265
Emergence of New Pests Following GM Trees Deployment	p. 266
Deleterious Effects on the Ecosystems	p. 266
Horizontal Transfer of the Transgenes to Other Organisms	p. 267
Conclusions	p. 268
References	p. 268
Towards Genetic Engineering for Drought Tolerance in Trees	p. 275
Introduction	p. 275
Water as a Central Molecule in Plant Physiology	p. 275
Water as a Limiting Resource	p. 276
Signalling Cascades and Metabolic Stress Adaptation from the Cellular to the Organismic Perspective	p. 277
ABA, MAPKK, Lipases, and Transcription Factors are Involved in Transmission of the Stress Signal	p. 277
Drought Stress Requires Osmotic Adjustment	p. 282
The Cells' Weapons to Prevent Drought-induced Injury	p. 284
Profiling of Gene Expression and Protein Patterns: New Tools for Improving Drought Tolerance in Trees?	p. 286
Conclusions	p. 289
References	p. 291
Biosafety Issues
Genome Instability in Woody Plants Derived from Genetic Engineering	p. 301
Introduction	p. 301
Genetic Engineering of Woody Plants	p. 301
Genome Instability in Plants	p. 302
Genome Instability Caused by Viruses and Repetitive Elements in Plants	p. 302
Polyploidy	p. 304
Genome Instability in Transgenic Plants	p. 305
Somaclonal Variation	p. 305
Molecular Marker Analysis of Genome Instability in Transgenic Plants	p. 306
Transgene Silencing	p. 306
Structure of T-DNA Insertion Locus	p. 307
Recombination Between Transgenic Sequences, Viruses and Repetitive Elements	p. 308
Transgene Stability in Woody Plants	p. 309
Instability of Transgene Expression	p. 310
Populus spp.	p. 310
Citrange (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck x Poncirus trifoliata L. Raf.)	p. 311
Spruce (Picea mariana, P. glauca, P. abies)	p. 311
Pinus radiata	p. 312
Apple (Malus spp.)	p. 312
Recombination Between Transgenic and Virus DNA/RNA	p. 312
Grapevine (Vitis spp. L)	p. 312
Prunus spp.	p. 313
Conclusions	p. 314
References	p. 314
Investigation of Horizontal Gene Transfer from Transgenic Aspen to Ectomycorrhizal Fungi	p. 323
Introduction	p. 323
Horizontal Gene Transfer Between Plants and Microorganisms	p. 324
Ectomycorrhizal Fungi and Horizontal Gene Transfer	p. 325
What Makes Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Interesting with Respect to Horizontal Gene Transfer?	p. 325
Investigation of Horizontal Gene Transfer from Trees to Ectomycorrhizal Fungi under Laboratory Conditions	p. 325
Investigation of Horizontal Gene Transfer from Aspen to Ectomycorrhizal Fungi under Field Conditions	p. 327
Experimental Site and Planting Conditions of Aspen	p. 327
Sampling and Analysis of Ectomycorrhizal Biodiversity	p. 328
Investigation of Horizontal Gene Transfer	p. 329
Conclusions	p. 331
References	p. 332
Transgenic Temperate Fruit Tree Rootstocks	p. 335
Introduction	p. 335
Overview of Genetic Transformation in Rootstocks	p. 336
Malus Rootstocks	p. 336
Pyrus and Prunus Rootstocks	p. 342
Factors Affecting the Transformation Efficiency	p. 342
Methodology of Rootstock Transformation and Results Obtained	p. 344
Field Tests of Transgenic Rootstocks	p. 346
Conclusions	p. 346
References	p. 347
Index	p. 351
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Tree Transgenesis

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