Travertine

1. Introduction 1.1 Definitions 1.2 Travertine compared with other non-marine carbonates 1.3 Etymology 1.4 History of the science of travertine formation 2. Classification And Origins 2.1 Travertine precipitation 2.2 Classification on carrier CO2 2.2.1 Meteogene travertines 2.2.2 Thermogene travertines 2.2.2.1 Magmatic generation of carrier 2.2.2.2 Decarbonation 2.2.2.3 CO2 from of heated organic matter 2.2.3 'Orgamox' waters and other CO2 sources 2.3 Other classifications 2.4 Sources of bedrock carbonate and calcium 3. Travertine Fabric 3.1 The microfabric 3.1.1 Calcite fabrics; micrite and sparit 3.1.2 Calcite fabrics: dendritic and similar forms 3.1.3 Calcite fabrics: shrubs and bushes 3.1.4 Aragonite fabrics 3.2 Mesofabrics 3.2.1 Porosity 3.2.2 Bedding and jointing 3.2.3 Floe, nodules and thinolite 3.2.4 Biofabrics 3.2.5 Coated grains: ooids and oncoids 3.2.5.1 Ooids 3.2.5.2 Oncoids 3.2.5.2.1 Fluvial oncoids 3.2.5.2.2 Lacustrine oncoids 3.2.6 Lamination 3.2.6.1 Banding within a fabric 3.2.6.2 Alternation of fabrics 3.2.6.3 Stromatolites 3.3 Diagenesis 3.3.1 Primary fabric and cement 3.3.2 Meteoric diagenesis 3.3.2.1 Percolation of stream and groundwater 3.3.2.2 Dissolution of carbonate 3.3.2.3 Recrystallisation of calcite 3.3.2.4 Recrystallisation of aragonite 3.3.2.5 Sparmicritisation 3.3.3 Burial diagenesis 4. Morphology And Facies 4.1 Authochthonous travertines 4.1.1 Spring mounds 4.1.2 Fissure ridges 4.1.3 Cascades 4.1.4 Dams 4.1.4.1 Minidams 4.1.4.2 Macrodams 4.1.5 Fluvial crusts 4.1.6 Lake deposits 4.1.6.1 Lacustrine crusts 4.1.6.2 Reefs 4.1.7 Paludal deposits 4.1.8 Cemented rudites and clasts 4.1.9 Speleothems 4.2 Allochthonous (clastic) travertines 4.3 Travertine caves 4.4 Post-depositional effects on morphology 4.4.1 Karstification 4.4.2 Soils 4.4.3 Mass movement 4.4.4 Effects on fluvial systems 5. Limestone Solution, Groundwater And Spring Emergence 5.1 Limestone solution and groundwater 5.1.1 Meteogene source waters 5.1.2 Thermogene and superambient meteogene source waters 5.2 Spring emergence - structural controls 6. Chemical Composition Of Travertine-Depositing Source Waters 6.1 Meteogene source waters 6.1.1 The CO2-Ca-H system 6.1.2 Mg, Na, SO4 and Cl 6.1.3 Calcium hydroxide source waters (invasive meteogenes) 6.1.4 Superambient meteogene source waters 6.1.5 'Orgamox' waters 6.2 Thermogene waters 6.2.1 The CO2-Ca-H system 6.2.2 Mg, Na, SO4 and Cl 6.3 Minor components of source waters 6.3 Saline waters 7. Mineralogy And Elemental Composition 7.1 Calcite and aragonite mineralogy 7.2 Occurrence of calcite and aragonite in travertine 7.3 Autochthonous carbonate minerals excluding CaCO3 7.4 Calcite and aragonite crystal habit 7.4.1 Calcite 7.4.2 Aragonite and vaterite 7.5 The calcium carbonate content of travertine 7.6 Trace constituents of calcite and aragonite 7.6.1 Strontium 7.6.2 Magnesium 7.6.3 The alkali metals 7.6.4 Iron and manganese 7.6.5 Phosphorus 7.6.6 Other elements 7.7 Autochthonous non-carbonate minerals 7.7.1 Gypsum 7.7.2 Barytes 7.7.3 Mn and Fe minerals 7.7.4 Sulphur 7.7.5 Silica 7.7.6 Other minerals 7.8 Allochthonous components 7.9 Fluid inclusions 7.10 Organic matter content 7.11 Fluorescence and phosphorescence 8. Stable Isotopes Of Travertine And The Associated Waters 8.1 Oxygen 8.1.1 The hydrological cycle 8.1.2 Oxygen isotopes in carbonates 8.1.3 Oxygen isotopes in travertine 8.1.4 Oxygen isotope equilibrium 8.1.4.1 Kinetic disequilibrium caused by CO2 evasion 8.1.4.2 Disequilibrium during precipitation 8.1.5 Oxygen and evaporation 8.2 Carbon 8.2.1 Meteogene travertine 8.2.2 Thermogene travertine 8.2.3 Modelling downstream changes 8.2.4 Disequilibrium and the 'metabolic shift' 8.3 Li, Pb, S and Sr 8.3.1 Sulphur 8.3.2 Sr, Pb and Li 9. Organisms Associated With Travertine 9.1 Prokaryotes 9.1.1 Photosynthetic bacteria 9.1.2 Non-photosynthetic bacteria 9.1.2.1 Sulphur-oxidising chemolithotrophic bacteria 9.1.2.2 Heterotrophic bacteria 9.1.3 Cyanobacteria 9.1.3.1 Subsection I (Chroococcales) and II (Pleurocapsales) 9.1.3.2 Subsection III (Oscillatoriales) 9.1.3.3 Subsection IV (Nostocalesand V (Stigonematales) 9.2 Eukaryotic algae 9.2.1 Chlorophyta (Green algae) 9.2.1.1 Zygnematales 9.2.1.2 Charales 9.2.1.3 Chaetophorales and other orders 9.2.2 Diatoms 9.2.2.1 Raphid pennate diatoms 9.2.2.2 Araphid pennate and centric diatoms 9.2.3 Other eukaryotic algae 9.3 Fungi and lichens 9.4 Bryophytes 9.4.1 Mosses 9.4.2 Liverworts 9.5 Tracheophytes 9.5.1 Lycopods, horsetails and ferns 9.5.2 Gymnosperms and angiosperms 9.6 Plant ecology on travertine 9.6.1 Plant communities and water relations 9.6.1.1 Bacteria and algae 9.6.2.2 Bryophytes and Tracheophytes 9.6.2 Diversity 9.6.3 Light, water chemistry, temperature and pollution 9.6.4 Succession and seasonality 9.6.5 Biomass and growth 9.7 Fauna 9.7.1 Protozoa 9.7.2 Metazoa 9.7.2.1 Uniramia-Hexapoda (Insects) 9.7.2.2 Vertebrates 9.7.3 Ecology of animals on travertine 10. Deposition Processes 10.1 Deposition rates 10.1.1 Meteogene rates 10.1.2 Thermogene rates 10.1.3 Temporal variation 10.1.3.1 Daily (diel) rates 10.1.3.2 Seasonal rates 10.1.4 Lateral variation 10.1.5 Amounts deposited over time 10.2 CO2 loss from emerging groundwaters 10.3 Saturation indices and nucleation 10.3.1 CaCO3 saturation indices 10.3.2 Calcite saturation indices for travertine-depositing waters 10.3.3 Heterogeneous nucleation and crystal-trapping 10.3.4 Apparent onset of deposition in streams 10.4 Crystal growth 10.4.1 Models of crystal growth and precipitation rate 10.5 Travertine deposition and discharge 10.6 Inhibitory effects 10.7 Biological processes 10.7.1 Non-photosynthetic bacteria 10.7.2 Photosynthetic microbes 10.7.3 Bryophytes and higher plants 10.7.4 Photosynthesis and respiration 11. Travertine Dating 11.1 Radioisotopes 11.1.1 Radiocarbon 11.1.2 Uranium series 11.1.3 Other radioisotopes 11.2 ESR and TL dating 11.3 Palaeomagnetism 11.4 Amino acid racemisation 11.5 Seasonal lamination 11.6 Chronostratigraphy 12. Palaeobiology And Biostratigraphy Of Quaternary Travertines 12.1 Fossil flora 12.1.1 Pleistocene flora 12.1.2 Holocene flora 12.2 Fossil faunas 12.2.1 Invertebrates excluding Mollusca 12.2.2 Mollusca 12.2.2.1 Pleistocene Mollusca 12.2.2.2 Holocene Mollusca 12.2.3 Vertebrate faunas excluding primates 12.2.3.1 Pleistocene faunas 12.2.3.2 Holocene faunas 12.2.4 Primates 13. Climate, Man And Travertine 13.1 Travertine deposition in the Quaternary 13.2 Climate and travertine deposition 13.3 Human influence 13.4 The conservation of travertine 14. Travertines And Their Fossils: Archaean To Pliocene 14.1 Archaean and Proterozoic travertines 14.2 Palaeozoic and Mesozoic 14.3 Paleocene to Oligocene 14.4 Miocene and Pliocene 15. Related Sediments And Industrial Deposits 15.1 Lacustrine marl 15.1.1 Biogenic marls 15.1.1.1 Benthonic Chara marls 15.1.1.2 Planktonic marls 15.1.2 Abiogenic marls 15.1.3 Clastic marls 15.1.4 Other marls 15.2 Calcrete 15.3 Coast deposits 15.4 Industrial deposits 15.4.1 Deposits in wells, pipes and boilers 15.4.2 Quarrying and construction deposits 15.4.3 Remedies 15.4.3.1 Chemical inhibitors of scaling 15.4.3.2 Physical and physico-chemical inhibitors 15.5 Siliceous sinter 16. Extraterrestrial Travertine 16.1 Vulcanism 16.2 Meteor impacts 17. Utilisation Of Travertine 17.1 Quarrying methods 17.2 Mechanical and physical properties 17.3 Building and exterior decoration 17.3.1 Pre-Roman use 17.3.2 Roman buildings 200BC-455AD 17.3.2.1 Bridges, temples and other large structures 17.3.2.2 Roman tombs| 17.3.3 The Dark Ages to the Renaissance 17.3.3.1 Europe excluding the UK 17.3.3.2 The United Kingdom 17.3.4 Europe: 1551-2000 17.3.5 A case study of English travertine use: the North Kent churches 17.4 Travertine in art 17.4.1 Sculpture and interior decoration 17.4.2 Garden decoration 17.4.3 Petrifying springs 17.4.4 Graphic art and tourism 17.5 Agriculture and industry 17.6 Medicinal 17.7 Economics and tonnage Photoplates References Index