Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Surveying
1.2 Geomatics
1.3 Famous Surveyors
1.4 Early History of Surveying
1.5 Plane Surveys
1.6 Geodetic Surveys
1.7 Types of Surveys
1.8 Modern Surveying Equipment
1.9 Use of Old Surveying Equipment
1.10 Maintenance of Equipment
1.11 Importance of Surveying
1.12 Safety
1.13 Liability Insurance
1.14 Opportunities in Surveying
2 Introduction to Measurements
2.1 Measurement
2.2 Necessity for Accurate Surveys
2.3 Accuracy and Precision
2.4 Errors and Mistakes
2.5 Sources of Errors
2.6 Systematic and Accidental or Random Errors
2.7 Discussion of Accidental or Random Errors
2.8 Occurrence of Accidental or Random Errors
2.9 Probability Curve
2.10 Propagation of Accidental or Random Errors
2.11 Significant Figures
2.12 Field Notes
2.13 Electronically Recorded Notes
2.14 Office Work and Digital Computers
2.15 Planning
Problems
3 Distance Measurement
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pacing
3.3 Odometers and Measuring Wheels
3.4 Tachymetry
3.5 Taping or Chaining
3.6 Electronic Distance Measurements
3.7 Global Positioning System
3.8 Summary of Measurement Methods
3.9 Equipment Required for Taping
3.10 Taping Over Level Ground
3.11 Taping Along Sloping Ground or Over Underbrush
3.12 Review of Some Trigonometry
Problems
4 Distance Corrections
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Corrections
4.3 Incorrect Tape Length or Standardization Error
4.4 Temperature Variations
4.5 Slope Corrections
4.6 Sag and Tension Corrections
4.7 Combined Taping Corrections
4.8 Common Mistakes Made In Taping
4.9 Errors In Taping
4.10 Magnitude of Errors
4.11 Suggestions for Good Taping
4.12 Taping Precision
5 Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMs)
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic Terms
5.3 Types of EDMs
5.4 Phase Shift EDMs
5.5 Timed Pulse EDMs
5.6 Setting Up, Leveling, and Centering EDMs
5.7 Necessary Steps for Measuring Distances with EDMs
5.8 Errors in EDM Measurements
5.9 Calibration of EDM Equipment
5.10 Accuracies of EDMs
5.11 Computation of Horizontal Distances from Slope Distances
5.12 Training of Personnel
5.13 Summary of Comments on EDMs
Problems
6 Introduction to Leveling
6.1 Importance of Leveling
6.2 Basic Definitions
6.3 Reference Elevations or Datums
6.4 First-, Second-, and Third-Order Surveys
6.5 Methods of Leveling
6.6 The Level
6.7 Types of Levels
6.8 Level Rods
6.9 Setting up the Level
6.10 Sensitivity of Bubble Tubes
6.11 Care of Equipment
Problems
7 Differential Leveling
7.1 Theory of Spirit Leveling
7.2 Definitions
7.3 Differential Leveling Described
7.4 Earth's Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction
7.5 Verniers
7.6 Level Rod Targets
7.7 Common Leveling Mistakes
7.8 Leveling Errors
7.9 Suggestions for Good Leveling
7.10 Comments On Telescope Readings
7.11 Precision of Differential Leveling
7.12 Hand Signals
8 Leveling, Continued
8.1 Adjustments of Level Circuits
8.2 Precise Leveling
8.3 Profile Leveling
8.4 Profiles
8.5 Cross Sections
8.6 Nonclosed Leveling Routes
Problems
9 Angles and Directions
9.1 Meridians
9.2 Units for Measuring Angles
9.3 Azimuths
9.4 Bearings
9.5 The Compass
9.6 Variations In Magnetic Declination
9.7 Direction Arrow Convention
9.8 Local Attraction
9.9 Reading Bearings With a Compass
9.10 Detecting Local Attraction
9.11 Traverse Angle Definitions
9.12 Traverse Computations
9.13 Magnetic Declination Problems
Problems
10 Measuring Angle and Directions With Total Stations
10.1 Transits and Theodolites (Obsolete)
10.2 Introduction to Total Stations
10.3 Types of Total Stations
10.4 Disadvantages of Total Stations
10.5 Advantages of Total Stations
10.6 Parts of Total Stations
10.7 Surveying With Total Stations
10.8 Setting Up the Total Station
10.9 Sighting the Instrument
10.10 Measuring Horizontal Angles
10.11 Closing the Horizon
10.12 Measuring Angles By Repetition
10.13 Direction Method for Measuring Horizontal Angles
10.14 Measuring Zenith Angles
10.15 Use of Data Collectors With Total Stations
10.16 Care of Instruments
Problems
11 Miscellaneous Angle Discussion
11.1 Common Errors In Angle Measurement
11.2 Common Mistakes In Measuring Angles
11.3 Angle-Distance Relationships
11.4 Traversing
11.5 Older Methods of Traversing
11.6 Modern Traversing With Total Stations
11.7 Intersection of Two Lines
11.8 Measuring An Angle Where The Instrument Cannot Be Set Up
11.9 Prolonging a Straight Line By Double Centering
11.10 Establishing Points On a Straight Line Between Two Given Points
11.11 Cleaning Surveying Equipment
Problems
12 Traverse Adjustment and Area Computation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Computations
12.3 Methods of Calculating Areas
12.4 Traverse Adjustment Overview
12.5 Balancing Angles
12.6 Latitudes and Departures
12.7 Error of Closure
12.8 Balancing Latitudes and Departures
12.9 Double Meridian Distances
12.10 Double Parallel Distances
12.11 Rectangular Coordinates
12.12 Areas Computed By Coordinates
12.13 Alternative Coordinate Method
12.14 Areas Within Irregular Boundaries
Problems
13 Computer Calculations and Omitted Measurements
13.1 Computers
13.2 Programs
13.3 Application of the Computer Program SURVEY
13.4 Computer Example
13.5 A Potential Warning: Danger In Computer Use
13.6 Omitted Measurements
13.7 Length and Bearing Of One Side Missing
13.8 Using Survey to Determine the Length and Bearing of a Missing Side
13.9 Example Radiation Problem
13.10 Computer Solution for Radiation Problem
13.11 Resection
Problems
14 Topographic Surveying
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Contours
14.3 Plotting of Topographic Maps
14.4 Summary of Contour Characteristics
14.5 Map Symbols
14.6 Completing the Map
14.7 Specifications for Topographic Maps
14.8 Methods of Obtaining Topography
14.9 Transit-Stadia Method of Mapping
14.10 Plane Table Surveys
14.11 Topographic Details Obtained With Total Stations
14.12 Selection of Points for Topographic Mapping
14.13 Profiles From Contour Maps
14.14 Checklist of Items to Be Included On a Topographic Map
Problems
15 The Global Positioning System (GPS)
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Monitoring Stations
15.3 Global Navigation Satellite System
15.4 Uses of GPS
15.5 Basic Theory
15.6 How Can the Travel Time of a Satellite Signal Be Measured?
15.7 Clock Bias
15.8 GPS Errors
15.9 Minimizing Errors Through Differential Correction
15.10 Receivers
15.11 HARN
15.12 CORS
15.13 OPUS
15.14 WAAS
15.15 GPS Signals
Problems
16 GPS Field Applications
16.1 Geoid and Ellipsoid
16.2 Field Applications
16.3 Static GPS Surveys
16.4 Kinematic GPS
16.5 Real-Time Kinematic Surveying
16.6 Virtual Reference Station
16.7 Dilution of Precision (DOP)
16.8 Planning
16.9 Example Problem
16.10 Network Adjustment
16.11 Carrier Phase GPS
Problems
17 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
17.1 Introduction
17.2 What? A Definition of Geographic Information Systems
17.3 Who and Where?
17.4 Why GIS?
17.5 When? The Evolution of GIS
17.6 Thematic Layering
17.7 Levels of Use of a GIS
17.8 Uses of Geographic Information Systems
17.9 Objectives of a GIS
17.10 Applications of a GIS
17.11 GIS on the World Wide Web
17.12 Accuracy in a GIS
17.13 Control Surveying
17.14 Legal Concerns With GIS
Problems
18 GIS, Continued
18.1 Essential Elements of a GIS
18.2 Selected Data About Geographic Locations
18.3 GIS Software
18.4 GIS Hardware
18.5 Sources of GIS Data
18.6 Putting Data into the Computer
18.7 Preprocessing Existing Data
18.8 Data Management and Retrieval
18.9 Manipulation and Analysis
18.10 Product Generation
18.11 Coordinates and Map Projections
18.12 Raster GIS
18.13 Conclusion to GIS Discussion
Problems
19 Construction Surveying
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Work of the Construction Surveyor
19.3 Trade Unions
19.4 Property Survey from the Contractor's Viewpoint
19.5 Preliminary Surveys
19.6 Grade Stakes
19.7 Referencing Points for Construction
19.8 Building Layout
19.9 Base Lines (Layout Performed By Surveyors)
19.10 Radial Staking Methods
19.11 Batter Boards
19.12 Building Layout: Contractor Method
19.13 As-Built Surveys
Problems
20 Volumes
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Slopes and Slope Stakes
20.3 Borrow Pits
20.4 Cross Sections
20.5 Areas of Cross Sections
20.6 Computation of Earthwork Volumes
20.7 Mass Diagram
20.8 Accounting for Shrinkage and Swell
20.9 Volumes from Contour Maps
20.10 Volume Formulas for Geometric Shapes
Problems
21 Land Surveying or Property Surveying
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Title Transfer and Land Records
21.3 Common Law
21.4 Monuments
21.5 Blazing Trees
21.6 The Land Surveyor: A Specialist
21.7 Monuments, Bearings, Distances, and Areas
21.8 Miscellaneous Terms Relating to Land Surveying
21.9 Resurveys
21.10 Metes and Bounds
21.11 The U.S. Public Lands Survey System
21.12 Early Days of the System
21.13 Outline of the System
21.14 Meander Lines
21.15 Witness Corners
21.16 Deed Descriptions of Land
Problems
22 Horizontal Curves
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Degree of Curvature and Radius of Curvature
22.3 Curve Equations
22.4 Deflection Angles
22.5 Selection and Staking Out of Curves
22.6 Computer Example
22.7 Field Procedure for Staking Out Curves
22.8 Circular Curves Using the SI System
22.9 Horizontal Curves Passing Through Certain Points
22.10 Spiral Curves
Problems
23 Vertical Curves
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Vertical Curve Calculations
23.3 Miscellaneous Items Relating to Vertical Curves
23.4 Unequal-Tangent Vertical Curves
23.5 Vertical Curve Passing Through a Specified Point
23.6 Parabolic Curve Equation
23.7 Computer Example
23.8 Roadway Crowns
23.9 Roadway Superelevation
Problems
24 Surveying-the Profession
24.1 Surveying Licenses
24.2 Registration Requirements
24.3 Penalties for Practicing Surveying Without a License
24.4 Reasons for Becoming Registered
24.5 A Profession
24.6 Code of Ethics
24.7 To Be Classed as a Professional
24.8 Conclusion
Problems
APPENDIX A: Some Useful Addresses
APPENDIX B: Baccalaureate Degree Programs in Surveying
APPENDIX C: Some Useful Formulas
Glossary
Index
