Preface xi
About the Companion Website xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Types of Surface Analysis 1
1.2 Why Is Surface Analysis Done in Vacuum? 1
1.3 Surface Energy 6
1.4 Relationship Between Surface Energy and Physical Properties 8
1.5 Measuring Surface Energy 10
1.6 Bulk Properties Affected by Surface Energy 14
1.7 Further Reading for Surface Contamination and Vacuum 16
Practice Problems 16
References 17
2 Elemental Analysis via X-ray Irradiation 19
2.1 Electron Emission upon X-ray Absorption 19
2.2 Instrumentation for X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 27
2.3 Qualitative Analysis with XPS 37
2.4 Quantitative Analysis with XPS 48
2.5 Depth Profiling with XPS 68
2.6 Chemical Analysis with X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) 73
2.7 Further Reading for XPS 78
Practice Problems 79
References 84
3 Elemental Analysis via Electron Irradiation 89
3.1 Principle of Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) 89
3.2 Qualitative Analysis with AES 93
3.3 Quantitative Analysis with AES 96
3.4 Scanning Auger Mapping 97
3.5 Further Reading for AES 99
Practice Problems 100
References 100
4 Elemental Analysis via Ion Irradiation 103
4.1 Principle of Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 103
4.2 Qualitative Analysis with SIMS 106
4.3 Quantitative Analysis with SIMS 111
4.4 Further Reading for SIMS 112
Practice Problems 112
References 113
5 Light Propagation, Absorption, and Reflection 115
5.1 Propagation and Absorption of Electromagnetic Wave 116
5.2 Reflection/Refraction at Interface of Two Media 128
5.3 Further Reading for IR and Raman Spectroscopy 139
Practice Problems 139
References 139
6 Spectroscopic Analysis via IR Reflection and Transmission 141
6.1 Attenuated Total Reflectance Infrared (ATR-IR) Spectroscopy 143
6.2 Specular Reflection Infrared (SR-IR) Spectroscopy 151
6.3 Reflection Absorption Infrared Spectroscopy (RAIRS) 158
6.4 Brewster-Angle Transmission (BAT) Infrared Spectroscopy 176
6.5 Diffuse-Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform (DRIFT) Spectroscopy 180
6.6 IR Spectroscopic Imaging 183
6.7 Further Reading for Surface-Sensitive IR Spectroscopy 192
Practice Problems 192
References 193
7 Buried Interface Analysis via Nonlinear Spectroscopy 197
7.1 Nonlinear vs. Linear Optical Responses 197
7.2 Sum Frequency Generation (SFG) Process 200
7.3 SFG Spectroscopy Probing 2D Interface 211
7.4 SFG Spectroscopy Probing Noncentrosymmetric Domains in 3D Bulk 233
7.5 Further Reading for SFG 251
Practice Problems 251
References 253
8 Multivariate Data Analysis 257
8.1 Least Squares Analysis 258
8.2 Factor Analysis 261
8.3 Matrix Algebra for Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Principal Component Regression (PCR) 263
8.4 Further Reading for Multivariate Analysis 281
Practice Problems 281
References 282
9 Thin Film Analysis via Reflectometry and Ellipsometry 283
9.1 Recap of Light Reflection and Transmission Principles 283
9.2 Reflectometry 285
9.3 Ellipsometry 288
9.4 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE) 295
9.5 Mueller Matrix Ellipsometry (MME) 306
9.6 Further Reading for Ellipsometry 314
Practice Problems 314
References 315
10 Topography Analysis via Light Reflection 317
10.1 White Light Interferometry (WLI) 317
10.2 Surface Roughness 326
10.3 Further Reading of Optical Profilometry 328
Practice Problems 328
References 329
11 Topography Analysis via Scanning Probe 331
11.1 Tip–Sample Interactions in Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 331
11.2 Force Measurement Through Cantilever Deflection 339
11.3 Cantilever Oscillation in Noncontact and Tapping Mode AFM 341
11.4 Surface Deformation in Contact Mode AFM 345
11.5 Scanning AFM Probe 348
11.6 Material Properties Measured Along with Topography 357
11.7 Further Reading for AFM 362
Practice Problems 362
References 365
12 Mechanical Analysis via Indentation 369
12.1 Modulus, Hardness, and Toughness 369
12.2 Nanoindentation 371
12.3 Micro-indentation 375
12.4 Hidden Factors Affecting Indentation Measurement 379
12.5 Further Reading for Nanoindentation 388
Practice Problems 388
References 391
Index 393
