Surface Analysis

List of Contributors xi
Preface xiii

1 Introduction 1
John C. Vickerman

1.1 How Do We Define the Surface? 1
1.2 How Many Atoms in a Surface? 2
1.3 Information Required 2
1.4 Surface Sensitivity 3
1.5 Radiation Effects â" Surface Damage 5
1.6 Complexity of the Data 6

2 Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis 7
Buddy D. Ratner, Lara J. Gamble, and David G. Castner

2.1 Overview 7
2.2 X-ray Interaction with Matter, the Photoelectron Effect and Photoemission from Solids 9
2.3 Binding Energy and the Chemical Shift 11
2.4 Inelastic Mean Free Path and Sampling Depth 19
2.5 Quantification 21
2.6 Spectral Features 26
2.7 Instrumentation 31
2.8 Spectral Quality 37
2.9 Depth Profiling 38
2.10 Xâ"Y Mapping and Imaging 41
2.11 Chemical Derivatization 43
2.12 Valence Band 44
2.13 Nanoparticle Characterization 45
2.14 Perspectives 46
2.15 Conclusions 47

3 Molecular Surface Mass Spectrometry by Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 55
Hua Tian and John C. Vickerman

3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Basic Concepts 57
3.3 Experimental Requirements 64
3.4 Secondary Ion Formation 77
3.5 Modes of Analysis 88
3.6 Future Outlook 116

4 SIMS for Semiconductors 125
Wilfried Vandervorst, Claudia Fleischmann, and Andrew Budrevich

4.1 Introduction 128
4.2 General Aspects of SIMS 131
4.3 Basic Processes of SIMS 136
4.4 Profile Shape 170
4.5 Conclusions 216

5 Mass Spectrometry Imaging 225
Rory T. Steven and Josephine Bunch

5.1 Introduction and Condensed History of MSI 225
5.2 Sample Preparation for MSI 227
5.3 Production of an Image in MSI â" Key Concepts 232
5.4 Key Modalities in MSI 236
5.5 Quantitation in MSI 246
5.6 Data Analysis in MSI 247
5.7 Notable Applications 249
5.8 Current and Future Perspectives 249

6 Scattering Spectroscopies and Related Techniques 267
Edmund Taglauer and Roger P. Webb

6.1 Introduction 267
6.2 Scattering Spectroscopies 268
6.3 Related Techniques 310
6.4 Conclusions 322

7 Vibrational Spectroscopy from Surfaces 329
Peter Gardner and Natalie Belsey

7.1 Introduction 329
7.2 Infrared Spectroscopy from Surfaces 330
7.3 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) 351
7.4 The Group Theory of Surface Vibrations 357
7.5 LASER Raman Spectroscopy from Surfaces 361
7.6 Inelastic Neutron Scattering (INS) 368
7.7 Sum-Frequency Generation Methods 370

8 Surface Structure Determination by Interference Techniques 375
Christopher A. Lucas and Yvonne Grunder

8.1 Introduction 375
8.2 Electron Diffraction Techniques 383
8.3 X-ray Techniques 399
8.4 Photoelectron Diffraction 428

9 Scanning Probe Techniques 441
Graham J. Leggett

9.1 Introduction 441
9.2 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy 442
9.3 Atomic Force Microscopy 462
9.4 Optical Microscopy and Spectroscopy at the Nanometre Scale 487
9.5 Conclusions 495

10 The Application of Machine Learning to Surface Analysis Data 503
Gustavo F. Trindade

10.1 Introduction 503
10.2 Basic Concepts 504
10.3 Data Preprocessing 506
10.4 Unsupervised Learning Methods 508
10.5 Supervised Learning Methods 530
10.6 Summary and Conclusion 541
Acknowledgements 541
References 541
Problems 544

Appendix Units, Fundamental Physical Constants and Conversions 547
A.1 Base Units of the SI 547
A.2 Fundamental Physical Constants 547
A.3 Other Units and Conversions to SI 547

References 548
Index 551