Springer Materials Science

Fundamental and Technological Aspects

By: Cor Claeys, Eddy Simoen

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Hardcover | 18 February 2009

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324 Pages

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The aim is to give an overview of the physics of extended defects in Germanium, i.e. dislocations (line defects), grain boundaries, stacking faults, twins and {311} defects (two-dimensional defects) and precipitates, bubbles, etc. The first part covers fundamentals, describing the crystallographic structure and other physical and electrical properties, mainly of dislocations. Since dislocations are essential for the plastic deformation of Germanium, methods for analysis and imaging of dislocations and to evaluate their structure are described. Attention is given to the electrical and optical properties, which are important for devices made in dislocated Ge. The second part treats the creation of extended defects during wafer and device processing. Issues are addressed such as defect formation during ion implantation, necessary to create junctions, which are an essential part in every device type. Extended defects are also created during the deposition of thin or thick epitaxial layers on other substrates, which are important for optoelectronic and photovoltaic applications. In brief, the book is intended to provide a fundamental understanding of the extended-defect formation during Ge materials and device processing, providing ways to distinguish harmful from less detrimental defects and should point out ways for defect engineering and control.

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Dislocations in Germanium: Mechanical Properties	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Elastic Properties of Germanium	p. 2
Definitions	p. 2
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Ge	p. 4
The First-Order Elastic Constants	p. 6
Third-Order Elastic Constants	p. 7
Internal Friction of Ge	p. 8
Dislocation: Definitions and Structures	p. 11
Creation and Observation of Dislocations	p. 15
Grown-In Dislocations	p. 17
Deformation-Induced Dislocations	p. 18
Observation of Dislocations	p. 19
Hardness and Plasticity of Ge at Room Temperature	p. 24
High Temperature Plasticity of Germanium	p. 30
Dislocation Velocity: Experimental Facts	p. 31
Dislocation Velocity: Fundamental Understanding	p. 41
Static Flow Tests or Creep Curve	p. 42
Dynamic Testing: Stress-Strain Yield Curves in Ge	p. 46
Impact of Dislocations on Dopant Diffusion	p. 54
Conclusions	p. 57
References	p. 58
Electrical and Optical Properties	p. 65
Introduction	p. 65
Electronic States of Dislocations	p. 67
Read's Acceptor Level Model	p. 67
Schröet;ter's 1D Band Model	p. 70
First Principles Calculations and EPR Results: Do DBs Exist in Split Dislocations?	p. 75
One Dimensional Conduction Along Dislocations	p. 77
Deformation-Induced Point Defects	p. 83
Electrical Activity of Grown-In Dislocations	p. 85
Impact of Dislocations on Carrier Mobility	p. 89
Impact of Dislocations on Lifetime, Trapping, and Noise	p. 93
Impact on Carrier Recombination	p. 93
Impact on Low Frequency Noise	p. 99
Impact of Dislocations on Ge Junction Devices	p. 100
Impact of Dislocations on Optical Properties	p. 104
Absorption and Recombination	p. 107
Optical Recombination	p. 110
Photoconductivity	p. 113
Photoluminescence	p. 126
Conclusions	p. 131
References	p. 132
Grain Boundaries in Germanium	p. 137
Introduction	p. 137
Structure and Observation of Grain Boundaries	p. 137
Electrical Properties of Grain Boundaries	p. 141
Optical Properties of Grain Boundaries	p. 150
Conclusions	p. 151
References	p. 151
Germanium-Based Substrate Defects	p. 153
Introduction	p. 153
Epitaxial Deposition: Definitions	p. 154
Modern Epitaxial Techniques	p. 154
Epitaxial Growth Modes	p. 158
Heteroepitaxial Strained Layers	p. 159
Equilibrium Critical Thickness	p. 160
Metastable Critical Thickness	p. 163
Misfit and Threading Dislocation Densities	p. 165
Strained Layer Dislocation Nucleation Mechanism	p. 166
Dislocation Glide and Climb in Strained Layers	p. 169
Dislocation Interaction Mechanisms	p. 172
Elastic Relaxation by Surface Roughening	p. 175
Strain Relaxation in Local Epitaxial Growth	p. 178
Homoepitaxy of Germanium	p. 180
Growth Modes	p. 180
Growth Roughness and Epitaxial Breakdown at Low Temperatures	p. 184
Heteroepitaxial Growth of Ge on Si	p. 193
Initial Growth Mechanisms	p. 195
Direct Layer-By-Layer Growth of Ge on Si	p. 198
Growth of Thick Relaxed Ge Layers Directly on Si	p. 203
Growth of Thick Relaxed Ge Layers by Means of a Graded Virtual Substrate	p. 206
Selective Epitaxial Growth of Relaxed Ge on Si	p. 210
Growth of Strained Ge and Si Layers and Si/Ge Superlattices	p. 215
Defects in Germanium-On-Insulator Substrates	p. 216
Summary and Conclusions	p. 227
References	p. 228
Process-Induced Defects in Germanium	p. 241
Introduction	p. 241
Fundamental Ion Implantation Damage Mechanisms	p. 242
Heavy Ion Induced Void Formation	p. 254
Damage Annealing and Solid Phase Epitaxial Regrowth	p. 257
Implantation Damage and Removal by Standard Dopant Ions	p. 265
Lattice Site and Damage of Implanted Species in Ge	p. 265
Boron Implantation in Ge	p. 268
Al Implantation in Ge	p. 277
P and As Implantation in Ge	p. 278
{311} Interstitial Clusters in Ge	p. 282
Oxygen Implantation in Ge and Ion Beam Mixing	p. 283
Hydrogen-Related Extended Defects in Germanium	p. 285
Conclusions	p. 287
References	p. 288
Index	p. 293
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

Springer Materials Science

Fundamental and Technological Aspects

At a Glance

Hardcover

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