Preface to the Fifth Edition x
How to Use This Book xiii
1 Introducing the Age of Reformation 1
The Concept of âReformationâ 2
The Lutheran Reformation 4
The Reformed Church 5
The Radical Reformation (Anabaptism) 7
The Catholic Reformation 9
The English Reformation 10
The Call for Reform 12
The Growth of Anti-Clericalism 12
The Need for Doctrinal Reform 14
A Failed Attempt to Reform: Conciliarism 16
The Growth of Regional and National Power 16
The Religious Agendas of the Reformers 17
For Further Reading 19
Part One: The Context of the Thought of the Reformation 21
2 A Changing World: The Cultural Backdrop to the Reformation 23
The Rise of the Individual: The Demand for Personal Relevance 24
Alternative Theologies: Folk Religion and Magic 26
Religious Democratization: The Use of the Vernacular 28
The Importance of Printing 30
The Urban Context of the Reformation 32
Sacralizing the Secular: Christianity as a World-Engaging Faith 36
Doctrinal Confusion: A Crisis of Authority Within the Church 38
Receptivity Toward the Reformation: The Case of Lollardy 40
For Further Reading 41
3 Renaissance Humanism and the Reformation 43
The Concept of âRenaissanceâ 44
The Concept of âHumanismâ 45
Classical Scholarship and Philology 46
The New Philosophy of the Renaissance? 47
Paul Oskar Kristellerâs View of Humanism 49
Ad fontes: Returning to the Fountainhead 50
Northern European Humanism 52
The Northern European Reception of the Italian Renaissance 52
The Ideals of Northern European Humanism 53
Eastern Swiss Humanism 54
French Legal Humanism 55
Erasmus of Rotterdam 56
Erasmusâ Critique of the Vulgate Text of the New Testament 59
Erasmusâ Editions of Patristic Texts 61
Networks of Influence: Erasmusâ Circle 62
Humanism and the Reformation: An Evaluation 63
Humanism and the Hebrew Bible 64
Humanism and the Swiss Reformation 65
Humanism and the Wittenberg Reformation 67
Tensions Between Reformation and Humanism 68
For Further Reading 71
4 Scholasticism and the Reformation 74
The Characteristics of Scholasticism 75
Scholasticism and the Universities 78
Types of Scholasticism 79
Realism Versus Nominalism 80
Intellectualism Versus Voluntarism 81
Pelagianism Versus Augustinianism 82
The Via Moderna 84
The Schola Augustiniana Moderna 86
The Impact of Medieval Scholasticism upon the Reformation 88
Lutherâs Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 88
Calvinâs Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 89
Protestant Scholasticism: Paradox or Inevitability? 91
For Further Reading 92
5 The Reformers: Seven Biographical Sketches 94
Martin Luther (1483â"1546) 95
Huldrych Zwingli (1484â"1531) 100
William Tyndale (c.1494â"1536) 102
Philip Melanchthon (1497â"1560) 103
Martin Bucer (1491â"1551) 104
Katharina Sch¼tz Zell (c.1497â"1562) 106
John Calvin (1509â"64) 107
For Further Reading 110
Part Two: The Core Themes of Reformation Thought 113
6 The Return to the Bible 115
Scripture in the Middle Ages 116
Medieval Hermeneutics: The Four Senses of Scripture 118
The Vulgate Translation of the Bible 119
Medieval Vernacular Versions of Scripture 120
The Humanists and the Bible 121
The Bible and the Protestant Reformation 123
The Canon of Scripture 124
The Authority of Scripture 126
The Role of Tradition 128
Methods of Interpreting Scripture 131
The Right to Interpret Scripture 134
The Translation of Scripture 139
Encouraging Engagement with the Bible 141
The Catholic Response: Trent on Scripture 142
For Further Reading 143
7 The Doctrine of Justification by Faith 147
A Foundational Theme: Redemption Through Christ 147
Justification and Martin Lutherâs Theological Breakthrough 150
Lutherâs Early Views on Justification 151
The Nature of Justifying Faith 153
Justification and the Indulgence Controversy (1517) 155
The Concept of âForensic Justificationâ 158
Justification and the Early Swiss Reformation 161
The Reformed Approach: Bucer and Calvin on Justification 164
Justification in the English Reformation 166
The Colloquy of Regensburg (1541): âDouble Justificationâ 168
The Catholic Response: Trent on Justification 170
The Nature of Justification 171
The Nature of Justifying Righteousness 172
The Nature of Justifying Faith 173
The Assurance of Salvation 173
For Further Reading 175
8 The Doctrine of the Church 177
The Background to the Reformation Debates: The Donatist Controversy 180
The Context of the Reformation Views on the Church 182
Luther on the Nature of the Church 183
The Radical View of the Church 185
Tensions Within Lutherâs Doctrine of the Church 187
Calvin on the Nature of the Church 188
The Two Marks of the Church 189
The Structures of the Church 190
Calvin on the Church and the Consistory 191
Calvin on the Role of the Church 193
The Debate over the Catholicity of the Church 194
The Council of Trent on the Church 197
For Further Reading 198
9 The Doctrine of the Sacraments 199
The Background to the Reformation Debates about the Sacraments 200
A Shared Emphasis: The Sacraments and the Promises of Grace 202
Luther on the Sacraments 204
Lutherâs Views on the Real Presence 208
Luther on Infant Baptism 210
Zwingli on the Sacraments 212
Zwingli on the Real Presence 214
Zwingli on Infant Baptism 216
Luther versus Zwingli: A Summary and Evaluation 218
Anabaptist Views on the Sacraments 220
Calvin on the Sacraments 222
Thomas Cranmer: The Real Presence in the English Reformation 225
The Catholic Response: Trent on the Sacraments 227
For Further Reading 229
10 The Doctrine of Predestination 231
The Background to the Reformation Debates over Predestination 232
Zwingli on the Divine Sovereignty 234
Melanchthonâs Changing Views on Predestination 236
Calvin on Predestination 237
Predestination in Later Reformed Theology 242
The Weber Thesis: Predestinarian Anxiety and the Origins of Capitalism 243
For Further Reading 245
11 The Political Thought of the Reformation 247
The Radical Reformation and Secular Authority 248
Lutherâs Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms 250
Zwingli on the State and Magistrate 256
Bucer and Calvin on Magistrate and Ministry 258
The âGodly Princeâ and the English Reformation 261
For Further Reading 264
12 Reformation Thought: Its Diffusion and Impact 266
Agencies of Diffusion 266
Books: The Transgression of International Boundaries 267
Refugees and the Movement of People 267
The Vernacular 269
Consolidating the Ideas of the Reformation: Some Key Texts 270
Catechisms 270
Confessions of Faith 272
Calvinâs Institutes of the Christian Religion 274
The Impact of Reformation Thought 277
The Protestant Work Ethic 277
The Reformation and Political Change 279
The Reformation and the Emergence of the Natural Sciences 281
Protestantism and the Rise of Modern Atheism 283
Reformation Ecclesiologies and the Modern Church 285
Conclusion 287
For Further Reading 288
Appendix 1 A Glossary of Theological and Historical Terms 290
Appendix 2 English Translations of Major Primary Sources 296
Appendix 3 Standard Abbreviations of Major Journals and Sources 299
Appendix 4 How to Refer to Major Primary Sources 302
Appendix 5 Referring to the Psalms in the Sixteenth Century 306
Appendix 6 Updating Reformation Bibliographies 308
Appendix 7 Chronology of Political and Intellectual History 310
Notes 315
Index 319
