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Radar Equations for Modern Radar

By: David Barton

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Hardcover | 1 November 2012

At a Glance

Hardcover
448 Pages

Edition Type
Unabridged

Dimensions(cm)
23.1 x 16.0 x 2.9

Hardcover

$320.99

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Based on the classic Radar Range-Performance Analysis from 1980, this practical

volume extends that work to ensure applicability of radar equations to

the design and analysis of modern radars. This unique book helps engineers

identify what information on the radar and its environment is needed to predict

detection range. Moreover, it provides equations and data needed to improve

the accuracy of range calculations. Professionals find detailed information on

propagation effects and methods of range calculation in environments that

include clutter, jamming, and thermal noise, as well as loss factors that reduce

radar performance. This invaluable book is supported with nearly 200 illustrations

and over 430 equations.

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Non-Fiction Engineering & Technology Electronics & Communications Engineering Communications Engineering & Telecommunications Radar Technology

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Non-Fiction Engineering & Technology Electronics & Communications Engineering Communications Engineering & Telecommunications Radar Technology

Preface	p. xv
Development of the Radar Equation	p. 1
Radar Equation Fundamentals	p. 1
Maximum Available Signal-to-Noise Ratio	p. 2
Minimum Required Signal-to-Noise Ratio	p. 4
Maximum Detection Range for Pulsed Radar	p. 5
The Original Radar Equation	p. 5
Blake's Radar Equation for Pulsed Radar	p. 6
Significance of Terms in Blake's Equation	p. 7
Methods of Solving for Range	p. 9
Advantages of the Blake Chart	p. 11
Blake's Coherent Radar Equation	p. 11
Blake's Bistatic Range Equation	p. 12
Other Forms of the Radar Equation	p. 13
Hall's Radar Equations	p. 13
Barton's Radar Equations	p. 14
Avoiding Pitfalls in Range Calculation	p. 16
System Noise Temperature T_s	p. 16
Use of Signal-to-Noise Energy Ratio	p. 17
Use of Average Power	p. 18
Bandwidth Correction and Matching Factors	p. 18
Detectability Factors for Arbitrary Targets	p. 18
Pattern-Propagation Factor	p. 19
Loss Factors	p. 19
Summary of Pitfalls in Range Calculation	p. 20
Radar Equation for Modern Radar Systems	p. 20
Factors Requiring Modifications to the Radar Equation	p. 20
Equations Applicable to Modern Radars	p. 23
Method of Calculating Detection Range	p. 24
Vertical Coverage Charts	p. 27
Required Probability of Detection	p. 28
Summary of Radar Equation Development	p. 30
References	p. 30
The Search Radar Equation	p. 33
Derivation of the Search Radar Equation	p. 34
Search Sectors for Air Surveillance	p. 37
Elevation Coverage in 2-D Surveillance	p. 37
Fan-Beam Pattern for 2-D Air Surveillance	p. 38
Cosecant-Squared Pattern for 2-D Surveillance	p. 39
Coverage to Constant Altitude	p. 40
Enhanced Upper Coverage for 2-D Surveillance	p. 40
Reflector Antenna design for 2-D Surveillance Radar	p. 41
Array Antennas for 2-D Surveillance Radar	p. 41
Example of Required Power-Aperture Product for 2-D Radar	p. 42
Three-Dimensional Air Surveillance	p. 43
Stacked-Beam 3-D Surveillance Radar	p. 43
Scanning-beam 3-D Surveillance Radars	p. 43
Search Losses for 3-D Surveillance Radar	p. 44
Surveillance with Multifunction Array Radar	p. 44
Example of MFAR Search Sectors	p. 45
Advantages and Disadvantages of MFAR Search	p. 46
Example of Search Radar Equation for MFAR	p. 47
The Search Fence	p. 48
Search Sector for the Fence	p. 49
Example ICBM Fence	p. 50
Search Losses	p. 51
Reduction in Available Energy Ratio	p. 51
Increase in Required Energy Ratio	p. 52
Summary of Losses	p. 52
References	p. 54
Radar Equations for Clutter and Jamming	p. 55
Signal-to-interference Ratio	p. 55
Clutter Effect on Detection Range	p. 57
Range-Ambiguous Clutter	p. 57
Types of Radar Waveforms	p. 58
Clutter Detectability Factor	p. 59
Effective Spectral Density of Clutter	p. 61
Detection Range with Clutter	p. 62
Detection in Surface Clutter	p. 62
Clutter from a Flat Surface	p. 62
Surface Clutter from the Spherical Earth	p. 65
Surface Clutter Cross Section	p. 66
Input Energy of Surface Clutter	p. 68
Detection Range of Surface-Based CW and HPRF Radars	p. 73
Summary of Detection in Surface Clutter	p. 76
Detection in Volume Clutter	p. 77
Geometry of Volume Clutter	p. 77
Volume Clutter Cross Section	p. 78
Volume Clutter Energy	p. 79
Volume Clutter Detectability Factor	p. 80
Detection Range in Volume Clutter and Noise	p. 80
Volume Clutter in CW and PD Radars	p. 82
Summary of Detection in Volume Clutter	p. 87
Effects of Discrete Clutter	p. 88
Effect of False Alarms	p. 89
Required Noise False-Alarm Probability	p. 89
Requirements for Rejection of Discrete Clutter	p. 90
Summary of Discrete Clutter Effects	p. 91
Sidelobe Clutter	p. 91
Surface Clutter in Sidelobes	p. 91
Volume Clutter in Sidelobes.	p. 93
Detection in Noise Jamming	p. 94
Objective and Methods of Noise Jamming	p. 94
Radar Equations for Noise Jamming	p. 96
Examples of Noise Jamming	p. 98
Deceptive Jamming	p. 101
Range Equations for Deceptive Jamming	p. 102
Summary of Detection in Jamming	p. 106
Range with Noise Jamming	p. 106
Deceptive Jammer Equations	p. 106
Detection in Combined Interference	p. 106
References	p. 107
Detection Theory	p. 109
Background	p. 109
Steady-Target Detectability Factor	p. 110
Exact Steady-Target Detection Probability	p. 111
Threshold Level	p. 111
Exact Steady-Target Detectability Factor	p. 114
Exact Single-Pulse, Steady-Target Detectability Factor	p. 114
Approximations for Single-Pulse, Steady-Target Detectability Factor	p. 115
Approximations for n-Pulse, Steady-Target Detectability Factor	p. 116
Detectability Factors for Fluctuating Targets	p. 118
Generalized Chi-Square Target Fluctuation Model	p. 118
Detection of Signals with Chi-Square Statistics	p. 119
Swerling Case 1	p. 120
Swerling Case 2	p. 124
Swerling Case 3	p. 125
Swerling Case 4	p. 127
Equations Based on Detector Loss	p. 127
Coherent Detection	p. 127
Envelope Detection and Detector Loss	p. 129
Integration Loss	p. 129
Integration Gain	p. 131
Fluctuation Loss	p. 132
Case 1 Detectability Factor	p. 133
Detectability Factors for Other Fluctuating Targets	p. 134
Diversity in Radar	p. 134
Diversity Gain	p. 134
Signal and Target Models with Diversity	p. 135
Visibility Factor	p. 138
Summary of Detection Theory	p. 140
References	p. 141
Beamshape Loss	p. 143
Background	p. 143
Definition of Beamshape Loss	p. 143
Sampling in Angle Space	p. 144
Literature on Beamshape Loss	p. 145
Beamshape Loss with Dense Sampling	p. 146
Simple Beamshape Loss Model	p. 146
Antenna Patterns	p. 147
Beamshape Loss for Different Patterns	p. 148
Sparse Sampling in 1-D Scan	p. 149
Method of Calculation for 1-D Scan	p. 149
Steady Target Beamshape Loss for 1-D Scan	p. 151
Case 1 Beamshape Loss for 1-D Scan	p. 153
Case 2 Beamshape Loss for 1-D Scan	p. 155
Beamshape Loss Used in Search Radar Equation for 1-D Scan	p. 158
Sparse Sampling in 2-D Raster Scan	p. 160
Method of Calculation for 2-D Scan	p. 162
Steady Target Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan	p. 162
Case 1 Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan	p. 163
Case 2 Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan	p. 165
Diversity Target Beamshape Loss for 2-D Scan	p. 168
Beamshape Loss in the Search Radar Equation for 2-D Raster Scan	p. 171
Sparse Sampling Using a Triangular Grid	p. 174
Method of Calculation for Triangular Grid	p. 174
Steady Target Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid	p. 175
Case 1 Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid	p. 175
Case 2 Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid	p. 176
Diversity Target Beamshape Loss for Triangular Grid	p. 178
Beamshape Loss in Search Radar Equation for Triangular Grid	p. 180
Summary of Beamshape Loss	p. 181
Beamshape Loss for Dense Sampling	p. 181
Beamshape Loss for Sparse Sampling	p. 182
Processing Methods	p. 184
Net Beamshape Loss for the Search Radar Equation	p. 185
Beamshape Loss for Unequally Spaced 2-D Scan	p. 186
References	p. 186
Appendix 5A Analytical Approximations for Beamshape Loss	p. 188
1-D Beamshape Loss	p. 188
2-D Beamshape Loss with Rectangular Grid	p. 189
2-D Beamshape Loss with Triangular Grid	p. 192
System Noise Temperature	p. 197
Noise in the Radar Bands	p. 197
Noise Spectral Density	p. 197
Noise Statistics	p. 198
Sources of Noise in Radar Reception	p. 200
Antenna Noise Temperature	p. 201
Sources of Antenna Noise Temperature	p. 201
Sky Noise Temperature	p. 204
Noise Temperature from the Surface	p. 209
Noise Temperature from Antenna Ohmic Loss	p. 211
Noise Temperature from Antenna Mismatch	p. 212
Approximation for Antenna Noise Temperature	p. 215
Receiving Line Temperature	p. 217
Receiver Noise Temperature	p. 217
Noise in Cascaded Receiver Stages	p. 217
Input and Output Levels	p. 219
Quantizing Noise	p. 220
Summary of Receiving System Noise	p. 221
Thermal Noise Dependence on Carrier Frequency	p. 221
Applicability of Blake's Method	p. 222
Refined Method for Modem Radar	p. 222
Receiver and Quantization Noise Temperature	p. 223
References	p. 223
Atmospheric Effects	p. 225
Tropospheric Refraction	p. 225
Refractive Index of Air	p. 226
Standard Atmosphere	p. 227
Inclusion of Water Vapor	p. 228
Vertical Profile of Refractivity	p. 229
Ray Paths in the Troposphere	p. 231
Attenuation in the Troposphere	p. 232
Sea-Level Attenuation Coefficients of Atmospheric Gases	p. 233
Variation of Attenuation Coefficients with Altitude	p. 237
Attenuation Through the Troposphere	p. 237
Attenuation to Ranged	p. 238
Attenuation for Dry and Moist Atmospheres	p. 244
Attenuation from Precipitation	p. 246
Rain Attenuation Coefficient at 293K	p. 246
Temperature Dependence of Rain Attenuation	p. 247
Rainfall Rate Statistics	p. 249
Attenuation in Snow	p. 251
Attenuation in Clouds	p. 253
Weather Effects on System Noise Temperature	p. 255
Tropospheric Lens Loss	p. 255
Ionospheric Effects	p. 257
Geometry of Ray in Ionosphere	p. 258
Ionospheric Structure	p. 258
Total Electron Count	p. 260
Faraday Rotation	p. 260
Dispersion Across Signal Spectrum	p. 264
Summary of Atmospheric Effects	p. 269
References	p. 270
The Pattern-Propagation Factor	p. 273
Equations for the F-Factor	p. 274
Derivation of the F-Factor	p. 274
Application of the F-Factor	p. 276
Geometrical Models of the Ray Paths	p. 277
Method 1: Flat-Earth Approximation for Distant Target	p. 278
Method 2: Flat Earth Approximation with Target at Arbitrary Range	p. 279
Method 3: First-Order Approximation for Spherical Earth	p. 280
Method 4: Approximation for Spherical Earth with Distant Target R	p. 282
Method 5: Approximation for Spherical Earth with Target at Arbitrary Range	p. 283
Method 6: Exact Expressions for Spherical Earth with Target at Arbitrary Range	p. 285
Comparison of Approximate Methods	p. 286
Reflection Coefficient	p. 287
Fresnel Reflection Coefficient	p. 288
Reflection from Rough Surfaces	p. 292
Land Surfaces with Vegetation	p. 295
The Divergence Factor	p. 295
Diffraction	p. 296
Smooth-Sphere Diffraction	p. 296
Knife-Edge Diffraction	p. 299
The Interference Region	p. 302
The Intermediate Region	p. 303
F-Factor as a Function of Range	p. 303
F-Factor as a Function of Altitude	p. 305
Vertical-Plane Coverage Charts	p. 306
Summary of Propagation Factors	p. 309
References	p. 310
Clutter and Signal Processing	p. 311
Modes of Surface Clutter	p. 311
Clutter Cross Section and Reflectivity	p. 311
Surface Clutter Pattern-Propagation Factor	p. 313
Spectral Properties of Surface Clutter	p. 318
Amplitude Distributions of Surface Clutter	p. 321
Models of Sea Clutter	p. 323
Physical Properties of the Sea Surface	p. 323
Reflectivity of Sea Clutter	p. 324
Power Spectrum of Sea Clutter	p. 326
Amplitude Distribution of Sea Clutter	p. 327
Models of Land Clutter	p. 327
Reflectivity of Land Clutter	p. 329
Power Spectrum of Land Clutter	p. 331
Amplitude Distribution of Land Clutter	p. 332
Discrete Clutter	p. 333
Discrete Land Features	p. 333
Birds and Insects	p. 333
Land Vehicles	p. 334
Wind Turbines	p. 335
Models of Volume Clutter	p. 335
Volume Clutter Cross Section and Reflectivity	p. 336
Volume Clutter Pattern-Propagation Factor	p. 337
Spectral Properties of Volume Clutter	p. 338
Amplitude Distribution of Volume Clutter	p. 340
Precipitation Clutter Models	p. 340
Chaff Models	p. 343
Clutter Improvement Factor	p. 344
Coherent MTI improvement Factors	p. 345
Noncoherent MTI Improvement Factors	p. 347
Other MTI Considerations	p. 347
Pulsed Doppler Processing	p. 348
Clutter Maps	p. 352
Summary of Clutter and Signal Processing	p. 352
References	p. 353
Loss Factors in the Radar Equation	p. 357
Reduction in Received Signal Energy	p. 358
Terms Specified in the Radar Equation	p. 358
Components of Range-Dependent Response Factor F_rdr	p. 361
Losses Included in System Noise Temperature 364
Losses in Search Radar Equation	p. 364
Losses Included in Antenna Gain	p. 367
Increases in Required Signal Energy	p. 370
Statistical Losses	p. 370
Losses in Basic Detectability Factor	p. 374
Matching and Bandwidth Losses	p. 375
Beamshape Loss L_p	p. 378
Signal Processing Losses	p. 379
Losses in Clutter Detectability Factor	p. 388
Losses in Visual Detection	p. 394
Losses in the Visibility Factor	p. 394
Collapsing Loss on the Display	p. 394
Bandwidth Correction Factor C_b	p. 395
Operator Loss L_o	p. 395
Summary of Loss Factors	p. 396
References	p. 397
List of Symbols	p. 399
Appendix Analysis Tools on DVD	p. 411
About the Author	p. 419
Index	p. 421
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

Radar Equations for Modern Radar

At a Glance

Hardcover

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