About the Authors xiii
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
About the Companion Website xxi
1 Introduction to Pulse Width Modulation 1
1.1 Introduction and Outlook 1
1.1.1 Definition of Pulse Width Modulation 1
1.2 Analog Signal 2
1.3 Digital Control 3
1.3.1 Hardware Controllers 4
1.3.1.1 History of PWM 6
1.3.2 Characteristics of PWM 7
1.3.3 Need for PWM 8
1.3.4 PWM Working 9
1.3.5 Types of PWM 10
1.3.6 Types of PWM 12
1.3.7 Modulation Index 12
1.3.8 Types of Modulation Index 13
1.3.9 Types of Modulation Index 14
1.3.10 Methods of Generating PWM Signals 16
1.3.11 Analog Generation Methods 16
1.3.12 Digital Generation Methods 16
1.3.13 Delta-Sigma Modulation 17
1.3.14 Generation of PWM Signal 17
1.3.15 Pulse Width Modulation Technique 20
1.3.16 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation Technique 23
1.3.17 Use of PWM Techniques for Power Quality Improvement 26
1.3.18 Applications 28
1.3.19 Analysis of PWM with Performance Parameters 29
1.3.20 Software Package 31
1.3.21 Hardware Interface Package 33
1.4 Summary 33
2 Basic PWM Approaches 35
2.1 Introduction 36
2.2 Basics of PWM 36
2.2.1 Duty Cycle 36
2.2.2 Frequency 36
2.2.3 Amplitude 36
2.3 Types of PWM Techniques 37
2.3.1 Fixed-Frequency PWM 37
2.3.2 Variable-Frequency PWM 38
2.3.3 Phase-Correct PWM 38
2.3.4 Delta-Sigma (Î"-Σ) Modulation 38
2.4 Applications of PWM 38
2.4.1 Motor Control 38
2.4.2 Power Regulation 38
2.4.3 Signal Generation 38
2.4.4 LED Dimming 39
2.4.5 Communication Systems 39
2.5 PWM Implementation 39
2.5.1 Hardware Implementation 39
2.5.2 Software Implementation 40
2.6 Advantages of PWM 40
2.7 Low Switching Frequency Operation 40
2.7.1 Advantages of Low Switching Frequency 40
2.7.2 Disadvantages of Low Switching Frequency 41
2.7.3 Applications 42
2.7.4 Design Considerations 42
2.8 Triangle Comparison-Based PWM 42
2.8.1 Bus Clamping PWM 42
2.8.2 Advantages 44
2.8.3 Applications 44
2.9 Unipolar PWM 45
2.9.1 Advantages 47
2.9.2 Applications 48
2.9.3 Bipolar PWM 48
2.9.4 Voltage-Controlled PWM 49
2.9.5 Working Principle 52
2.9.6 Implementation of Voltage-Controlled PWM 52
2.9.7 Applications of Voltage-Controlled PWM 53
2.9.8 Advantages of Voltage-Controlled PWM 54
2.10 Current-Controlled PWM 54
2.10.1 Applications of Current-Controlled PWM 55
2.10.2 Advantages of Current-Controlled PWM 55
2.10.3 Example Implementation 55
2.11 Compensated Pulse Width Modulation 56
2.12 Fundamentals of PWM 56
2.13 Need for Compensation 56
2.13.1 Types of Controlling/Compensation Techniques 56
2.13.2 Implementation of Compensated PWM 57
2.13.3 Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation 58
2.13.4 Fundamentals of Space Vector PWM 59
2.13.5 Clarke Transformation 59
2.13.6 Space Vector Concept 59
2.14 Modulation Process 61
2.14.1 Advantages of SVPWM 61
2.14.2 Applications 61
2.15 Hybrid Pulse Width Modulation 62
2.15.1 Concept of Hybrid PWM 62
2.15.2 Types of Hybrid PWM 62
2.15.3 Applications of Hybrid PWM 63
2.15.4 Advantages of Hybrid PWM 63
2.15.5 Implementation Challenges 64
2.16 MATLAB Exercises 64
2.17 Detailed Step-by-Step Exercise for Unipolar PWM 65
2.17.1 Simulation Diagram 67
2.18 Experimental Setup and Analysis 67
2.19 Summary 71
3 PWM for Power Converters 77
3.1 Introduction 77
3.2 Controlled Rectifiers 77
3.2.1 Continuous Firing Angle Regulation 78
3.2.2 Integral Cycle Control 78
3.3 Pulse Generation Topologies for Controlled Rectifiers 80
3.3.1 Phase-Locked Loop-Based Pulse Generation 80
3.3.2 Microcontroller and Digital Signal Processor-Based Topologies 80
3.3.3 Zero-Crossing Detector-Based Logic Circuits 80
3.3.4 Analog Timing Circuit-Based Pulse Generation 81
3.3.5 FBGA-Based Topologies 81
3.3.6 Direct Digital Synthesis-Based Circuits 81
3.4 Single-Phase Inverter 81
3.4.1 Circuit Topologies 82
3.5 Three-Phase Inverter 90
3.5.1 Circuit Topology 90
3.5.2 Conduction Modes: 120-Degree Versus 180-Degree 94
3.6 Pulse Generation Topologies for Inverter 94
3.6.1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 95
3.7 Duty Cycle Generation for Choppers 95
3.7.1 Pulse Width Modulation 95
3.7.2 Variable Frequency Control 96
3.8 Soft-Switching PWM 96
3.8.1 Zero-Voltage Switching (ZVS) 97
3.8.2 Zero Current Switching (ZCS) 97
3.8.3 Advantages and Applications of ZCS Converters 98
3.8.4 Limitations of ZCS Converters 98
4 PWM Applications for System Control 101
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 Voltage Regulation Using PWM 101
4.2.1 AC Voltage Control 101
4.2.2 Series Inverter Control 102
4.2.3 External Control of DC Voltage 102
4.2.4 Internal Control 102
4.3 Problem Statement 103
4.4 Fuzzy Logic-Based Controller 104
4.4.1 Problem Formulation and Parameterization 104
4.4.2 Implementation Procedure 106
4.5 PI-Based Controller 107
4.5.1 Tuning of PI Controller 108
4.5.2 Implementation Procedure 109
4.6 ANN-Based Controller 110
4.6.1 Formulation of Problems Along with Parameterization 111
4.6.2 Algorithm 111
4.7 Simulation Results 112
4.7.1 Fuzzy Logic Controller to Control a 15-Level Inverter 114
4.7.2 15-Level Inverter with Controller Based on PI 115
4.7.3 An ANN-Based Controller for a 15-Level Inverter 115
4.8 Hardware Outcomes 115
4.8.1 Harmonic Analysis Using PWM 122
4.8.2 Phase Disposition 123
5 PWM For Multilevel Inverters 155
5.1 Introduction 155
5.2 Types of Multilevel Inverters 157
5.2.1 Diode-Clamped Multilevel Inverter (DCMLI) 158
5.2.2 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverter (FCMLI) 160
5.2.3 Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter (CHBMLI) 160
5.2.4 Multilevel Inverter with Reduced Order 162
5.2.5 Multilevel Inverter Comparison 163
5.2.6 Multilevel Inverters' Utilization 163
5.3 Switching Sequences for Multilevel Inverter 164
5.4 Analog PWM for Multilevel Inverter 166
5.4.1 Vertical Distribution of Carriers 168
5.4.2 Carriers' Horizontal Distribution 169
5.5 Simulation Exercises 170
5.6 Results of the Experiment 183
5.7 Digital PWM 189
5.8 Binary Mode 192
5.9 Trinary Mode 197
5.10 Modified Multilevel Converter 199
5.11 Simulation Exercises 199
5.11.1 Conventional Approach 200
5.11.2 Binary Mode 201
5.11.3 Trinary Mode 204
5.11.4 Modified Multilevel Converter Mode 206
5.12 Experimental Results 212
6 PWM Generation with the Aid of Intelligent Techniques 219
6.1 Introduction 219
6.2 Intelligent Techniques 220
6.3 Ideal Harmonic Stepped Waveform 222
6.4 Artificial Neural Network 226
6.4.1 Dataset Collection 226
6.4.2 Architecture of ANNs 227
6.5 Optimization Techniques 229
6.5.1 Formulation of Problems 229
6.6 Genetic Algorithm 231
6.6.1 Computation of Switching Angles 232
6.7 Particle Swarm Optimization 234
6.8 Bees Optimization 235
6.8.1 Natural World of Bees 235
6.8.2 Determination of Switching Angles 236
6.9 Simulation Results 237
6.10 Optimal Harmonic Stepped Waveform 237
6.10.1 Artificial Neural Networks 239
6.10.2 Optimization Techniques 244
6.11 Experimental Results 248
6.12 Summary 252
7 Experimental Implementation of PWM Generation 253
7.1 Introduction 253
7.2 PWM Generation Using IC 253
7.3 Features of the TL494 253
7.4 PWM Driver 259
7.5 IR2110 Features 260
7.6 Case Study 261
7.7 Microcontroller-Based PWM Generation 261
7.8 Hardware Implementation 262
7.9 Hardware Circuit 265
7.10 Microcontroller Unit 268
7.11 FPGA-Based Implementation of PWM 278
7.12 DSPACE-Based PWM Generation 283
7.13 MicroLab Box and dSPACE 284
7.13.1 About MicroLab Box 284
7.13.2 Application Areas 285
7.13.3 Key Benefits 285
7.14 Real-Time Interface (RTI) Using MicroLab box 285
7.15 Working with RTI 285
7.16 Summary 286
Index 289
