Preface iii
Part 1
1 The World of Psychological Testing, 3
Introduction, 3
Major Categories of Tests, 4
Some Additional Ways to Categorize Tests, 6
Uses and Users of Tests, 8
Major Issues: Assumptions and Questions, 10
Basic Assumptions, 10
Fundamental Questions, 12
The Differential Perspective, 13
The Historical Perspective, 13
Remote Background: Up to 1840, 14
Setting the Stage: 1840–1880, 15
The Roots: 1880–1915, 17
The Flowering: 1915–1940, 19
Consolidation: 1940–1965, 21
Just Yesterday: 1965–2000, 22
And Now: 2000–Present, 23
Major Forces, 24
The Scientific Impulse, 24
Concern for the Individual, 24
Practical Applications, 25
Statistical Methodology, 25
The Rise of Clinical Psychology, 25
Computers, 25
By Way of Definition, 28
Summary, 29
Key Terms, 30
Exercises, 30
2 Sources of Information About Tests, 32
Two Common Problems Requiring Information About Tests, 32
A Test’s Introductory Kit, 33
Comprehensive Lists of Tests, 34
Test Collection at ETS, 34
PsycTESTS, 35
Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HaPI), 35
Tests in Print, 36
Systematic Reviews, 37
Buros Reviews Available Electronically, 37
Some Other Sources of Reviews, 38
Special-Purpose Collections, 38
Books About Single Tests, 39
Textbooks on Testing, 40
Journals, 40
Publishers’ Catalogs and Personnel, 42
Other Users, 42
Strengths and Shortcomings of the Sources, 43
Summary, 44
Key Terms, 44
Exercises, 44
3 Test Norms, 47
Purpose of Norms, 47
Review of Statistics: Part 1, 48
Variables, 48
Types of Scales, 49
Organization of Raw Data, 50
Central Tendency, 51
Variability, 52
z-Scores, 53
Shapes of Distributions, 54
The Raw Score, 55
The Special Case of Theta (θ), 56
Types of Norms, 57
Percentile Ranks and Percentiles, 59
Standard Scores, 63
Developmental Norms, 69
Examples of Norm Tables, 72
Interpretive Reports and Norms, 72
Innovative Ways to Interpret Test Performance, 74
What to Read?, 74
Ready or Not?, 75
Depressed or Not?, 75
What Job for You?, 75
Conclusion, 75
Norm Groups, 76
National Norms, 76
International Norms, 76
Convenience Norm Groups, 76
User Norms, 77
Subgroup Norms, 77
Local Norms, 77
Institutional Norms, 78
Criterion-Referenced Interpretation, 79
The Standardization Group: Determining Its Usefulness, 80
Summary, 83
Key Terms, 84
Exercises, 84
4 Reliability, 86
Introduction, 86
Four Important Distinctions, 87
Review of Statistics: Part 2—Correlation and Prediction, 88
Bivariate Distribution and Correlation Coefficients, 88
Regression Line, 90
Factors Affecting Correlation Coefficients, 92
Major Sources of Unreliability, 96
Test Scoring, 96
Test Content, 98
Test Administration Conditions, 98
Personal Conditions, 99
Conceptual Framework: True Score Theory, 99
Methods of Determining Reliability, 101
Test–Retest Reliability, 101
Inter-Scorer Reliability, 102
Alternate Form Reliability, 103
Internal Consistency Reliability, 104
Split-Half Reliability, 104
Kuder–Richardson Formulas, 105
Coefficient Alpha, 106
Three Important Conclusions, 108
The Standard Error of Measurement, 108
Confidence Bands, 109
Appropriate Units for SEM, 109
Standard Errors: Three Types, 110
Some Special Issues in Reliability, 111
Reliability in Item Response Theory, 113
Generalizability Theory, 114
Factors Affecting Reliability Coefficients, 115
How High Should Reliability Be?, 115
Summary, 116
Key Terms, 117
Exercises, 117
5 Validity, 119
Introduction, 119
Refining the Definition of Validity, 120
Construct Underrepresentation and Construct-Irrelevant Variance, 121
The Basic Issue, 122
The Traditional and Newer Classifications of Types of Validity Evidence, 123
The Issue of Face Validity, 124
Content Validity, 124
Application to Achievement Tests, 124
Instructional Validity, 126
Application to Employment Tests, 127
Content Validity in Other Areas, 128
Problems with Content Validity, 128
Criterion-Related Validity, 129
External, Realistic Criterion, 130
Contrasted Groups, 132
Correlations with Other Tests, 133
Special Considerations for Interpreting Criterion-Related Validity, 134
The Reliability–Validity Relationship, 135
Combining Information from Different Tests, 138
Decision Theory: Basic Concepts and Terms, 141
Hits, False Positives, and False Negatives, 142
Base Rate, 143
Sensitivity and Specificity, 144
Construct Validity, 145
Internal Structure, 146
Factor Analysis, 146
Response Processes, 148
Effect of Experimental Variables, 148
Developmental Changes, 149
Consequential Validity, 149
Test Bias as Part of Validity, 150
The Practical Concerns, 151
Integrating the Evidence, 151
In the Final Analysis: A Relative Standard, 152
Summary, 152
Key Terms, 153
Exercises, 153
6 Test Development and Item Analysis, 155
Introduction, 155
Defining the Test’s Purpose, 156
Preliminary Design Issues, 157
Origin of New Tests, 158
Item Preparation, 159
Types of Test Items, 160
Selected-Response Items, 160
Scoring Selected-Response Items, 162
Constructed-Response Items, 162
Scoring Constructed-Response Items, 163
The Pros and Cons of Selected-Response versus Constructed-Response Items, 166
Suggestions for Writing Selected-Response Items, 167
Suggestions for Writing Constructed-Response Items, 167
Some Practical Considerations in Writing Items, 168
Technology-based Innovations in Item Structure, 169
Item Analysis, 169
Item Tryout, 170
Item Statistics, 170
Item Difficulty, 171
Item Discrimination, 171
Examples of Item Statistics, 172
Item Statistics in Item Response Theory, 174
Factor Analysis as an Item Analysis Technique, 177
Item Selection, 178
Computer-Adaptive Testing, 181
Standardization and Ancillary Research Programs, 183
Preparation of Final Materials and Publication, 184
Summary, 185
Key Terms, 185
Exercises, 185
7 Fairness and Bias, 187
Fairness: Gaining Perspective, 187
Methods of Studying Test Fairness, 190
Panel Review, 191
Differential Item Functioning, 192
Differential Prediction, 194
Measurement Invariance, 196
Accommodations and Modifications, 197
Research on Accommodations, 198
Some Tentative Conclusions about Test Fairness, 199
Summary, 200
Key Terms, 201
Exercises, 201
Part 2
8 Cognitive Abilities: Individual Tests, 205
Some Cases, 205
Introduction to Cognitive Ability Tests, 206
Some Terminology, 206
Real-World Correlates of Cognitive Abilities, 207
Structure of Cognitive Abilities, 208
Uses and Characteristics of Individual Cognitive Ability Tests, 211
Typical Items in an Individual Intelligence Test, 213
The Wechsler Scales: An Overview, 215
Historical Introduction, 215
Weschsler’s Concept of Intelligence, 216
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition, 216
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition, 223
WISC versus WAIS, 223
Psychometric Characteristics of WISC-V, 224
The Stanford-Binet, 225
Transition to New Structure: SB4 and SB5, 225
Psychometric Characteristics of SB5, 226
Brief Individually Administered Tests of Mental Ability, 227
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, 227
Two Other Entries, 231
A Test of a Specific Cognitive Ability: The Wechsler Memory Scale, 231
Intellectual Disability, 235
Changing Terminology, 236
The Concept of Adaptive Behavior, 236
Definition of Intellectual Disability, 237
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 238
Other Applications of Adaptive Behavior, 241
Infant and Early Childhood Tests, 241
Other Areas for Cognitive Ability Tests, 241
Trends in Individually Administered Cognitive Ability Tests, 242
Summary, 244
Key Terms, 244
Exercises, 244
9 Cognitive Abilities: Group Tests, 246
Some Cases, 246
Uses of Group-Administered Cognitive Ability Tests, 247
Common Characteristics of Group Cognitive Ability Tests, 248
Cognitive Ability Tests in School Testing Programs, 250
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, 250
College Admissions Tests, 257
The SAT, 257
The ACT, 259
Graduate and Professional School Selection, 264
Graduate Record Examinations: General Test, 265
Military and Business Selection Tests, 269
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, 270
Wonderlic Personnel Test, 272
Culture-Fair Tests of Cognitive Ability, 273
Intelligence Tests for Microcultures, 275
Generalizations About Group Cognitive Ability Tests, 276
Summary, 277
Key Terms, 278
Exercises, 278
10 Neuropsychological Assessment, 279
Case Examples, 279
Focus on the Brain: The Road to Clinical Neuropsychology, 280
Two Main Approaches to Neuropsychological Assessment, 284
Fixed Battery Approach, 284
Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, 284
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery, 285
Flexible Battery Approach, 287
Mental Status, 288
Intelligence, 289
Achievement, 289
Attention/Concentration, 289
Language, 290
Visuospatial/Perceptual, 291
Memory, 292
Motor Functioning, 294
Executive Functions, 295
Personality/Psychological State, 296
Supplementary Information, 298
Medical History, 299
Psychiatric History, 299
Psychosocial History, 299
School Records, 300
Collateral Information, 300
Behavioral Observations, 300
Case Examples Revisited, 301
Summary, 305
Key Terms, 305
Exercises, 306
11 Achievement Tests, 307
Introduction, 307
The Ability-Achievement Continuum, 308
The Psychologist’s Interface with Achievement Tests, 308
A Broad Classification of Achievement Tests, 309
A Typical School Testing Program, 310
The Accountability Movement and Standards-Based Education, 310
Trends in Achievement Testing in the Schools, 311
Achievement Batteries, 312
Stanford Achievement Test, 312
Typical Uses and Special Features, 314
Achievement Batteries at the College Level, 315
Single-Area Achievement Tests, 316
Examples, 316
Typical Uses and Special Features, 318
Licensing and Certification Tests, 318
Examples, 319
Typical Uses and Special Features, 319
A Primer on Establishing Cutoff Scores, 320
State, National, and International Achievement Tests, 321
State Testing Programs, 321
A National Testing Program: NAEP, 322
International Testing Programs: TIMSS, PIRLS, PISA, and PIAAC, 322
Special Features, 323
Individually Administered Achievement Tests, 323
Examples, 324
Typical Uses and Special Features, 326
Curriculum Based Measures, 327
General Characteristics, 327
Examples, 327
Interpretation, 328
Some Nagging Questions about Achievement Tests, 329
Summary, 330
Key Terms, 331
Exercises, 331
12 Objective Personality Tests, 333
Introduction, 333
Uses of Objective Personality Tests, 334
A Functional Classification of Objective Personality Tests, 335
Comprehensive Inventories: Common Characteristics, 336
Specific Domain Tests: Common Characteristics, 338
The Special Problems of Response Sets and Faking, 339
Strategies for Dealing with Response Sets and Faking, 340
Major Approaches to Personality Test Development, 343
Content Method, 343
Criterion-Keying Approach, 344
Factor Analysis, 346
Theory-Driven Approach, 346
Combined Approaches, 347
Examples of Comprehensive Inventories, 347
The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS): An Example of a Theory-Based Test, 348
The NEO Personality Inventory-3: An Example of a Factor-Analytic Test, 349
IPIP: Build Your Own Personality Inventory, 352
Specific Domain Tests, 353
Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale, 353
Measures within Positive Psychology, 355
An Example: Subjective Well-Being, 356
Trends in the Development and Use of Objective Personality Tests, 357
Summary, 358
Key Terms, 359
Exercises, 359
13 Clinical Instruments and Methods, 360
Introduction, 360
The Clinical Interview as Assessment Technique, 361
Unstructured, Semistructured, and Structured Interviews, 361
The DSM and ICD, 362
Categorical versus Dimensional Approaches, 362
Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders, 363
The Employment Interview: A Sidebar, 364
Examples of Comprehensive Self-Report Inventories, 365
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 365
MMPI-2 RF (Restructured Form), 372
The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI) and the Millon Family, 373
Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), 376
Symptom Checklist-90-R, 378
Examples of Specific Domain Tests, 380
The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 380
The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), 381
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, 384
Behavior Rating Scales, 385
Multiscore Systems, 386
Single-Area Scales, 387
Behavioral Assessment, 387
Direct or Naturalistic Observation, 388
Analogue Behavioral Observation, 388
Behavioral Interviewing, 389
Self-Monitoring and Self-Report, 389
Cognitive-Behavioral Assessment, 390
Physiological Measures, 390
Concluding Comments on Behavioral Assessment Methods, 390
Trends in the Development and Use of Clinical Instruments, 391
Summary, 392
Key Terms, 392
Exercises, 393
14 Projective Techniques, 394
General Characteristics of Projective Techniques and the Projective Hypothesis, 394
Uses of Projective Techniques, 395
Indicators for the Use of Projectives, 397
Administration and Scoring of Projective Techniques: A Forewarning,397
The Rorschach Inkblot Test, 398
The Materials, 399
Administration and Scoring, 400
The Coding System, 402
Sequence of Scores and Structural Summary, 404
Evaluation of the Rorschach, 404
Rorschach Performance Assessment System (R-PAS), 405
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 406
Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB), 408
Human Figure Drawings, 411
The Future of Projective Techniques, 413
Training of Psychologists, 413
Emergence of Managed Care, 413
Objective Scoring, Norm-Referenced Interpretation, and Psychometric
Quality, 414
Summary, 415
Key Terms, 415
Exercises, 415
15 Interests and Attitudes, 417
Introduction, 417
Orientation to Career Interest Testing, 418
Strong and Kuder, 418
Traditional Approaches, 418
Uses of Career Interest Tests, 419
A Forewarning on Names, 420
Holland Themes and the RIASEC Codes, 421
Strong Interest Inventory, 422
Kuder Career Interests Assessments, 427
Self-Directed Search (SDS), 428
Some Generalizations about Career Interest Measures, 431
Attitude Measures, 432
Likert Scales, 433
Thurstone Scales, 435
Guttman Scales, 436
Public Opinion Polls and Consumer Research, 437
Summary, 437
Key Terms, 438
Exercises, 438
16 Ethical and Legal Issues, 439
Ethics versus Law, 439
Ethical Issues, 440
Background on Professional Ethics, 440
Sources of Ethical Principles for Testing, 441
Generalizations about Ethical Use of Tests, 444
Competence, 444
Informed Consent, 444
Knowledge of Results, 445
Confidentiality, 445
Test Security, 445
Test Development and Publication, 445
Automated Scoring/Interpretation Systems, 446
Unqualified Persons, 446
Test User Qualifications, 446
Legal Issues, 447
Areas of Application: An Overview, 448
Definition of Laws, 448
Laws Related to Testing, 449
The Fourteenth Amendment, 450
The Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991, 451
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990, 451
The Handicapped/Disabled in Education: P.L. 94–142 and IDEA, 452
FERPA and HIPAA, 453
EEOC Guidelines, 454
ESEA, NCLB, and ESSA, 456
Illustrative Court Cases, 456
Griggs v. Duke Power, 457
Debra P. v. Turlington and GI Forum v. TEA, 458
Larry P. v. Riles, PASE v. Hannon, and Crawford v. Honig, 459
Karraker v. Rent-A-Center, 460
Atkins v. Virginia and Hall v. Florida, 460
New Haven Firefighters Case, 461
Forensic Application of Tests, 461
Two Legal Terms, 462
Three Areas of Special Concern, 462
And Beyond, 463
Some Generalizations about the Interface of Testing and the Law, 463
Summary, 464
Key Terms, 465
Exercises, 465
Appendix A. Test Reviewing and Selection 467
Appendix B. How to Build a (Simple) Test 473
Appendix C. Contact Information for Major Test Publishers 479
Appendix D. Sample Data Sets 480
Appendix E. Answers to Selected Exercises 481
Glossary 485
References 501
Name Index 523
Subject Index 529
