List of Figures xxi
List of Tables xlv
Preface to Third Edition xlvii
Preface to Second Edition xlix
Preface to the First Edition li
Symbols, Abbreviations, and Acronyms Iv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Materials Processing 1
1.2 Plasmas and Sheaths 5
1.3 Discharges 12
1.4 Symbols and Units 20
2 Basic Plasma Equations and Equilibrium 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Field Equations, Current, and Voltage 22
2.3 The Conservation Equations 25
2.4 Equilibrium Properties 30
Problems 34
3 Atomic Collisions 37
3.1 Basic Concepts 37
3.2 Collision Dynamics 42
3.3 Elastic Scattering 46
3.4 Inelastic Collisions 53
3.5 Averaging Over Distributions and Surface Effects 64
Problems 68
4 Plasma Dynamics 73
4.1 Basic Motions 73
4.2 Nonmagnetized Plasma Dynamics 77
4.3 Guiding Center Motion 84
4.4 Dynamics of Magnetized Plasmas 90
4.5 Waves in Magnetized Plasmas 93
4.6 Microwave and RF Field Diagnostics 100
Problems 107
5 Diffusion and Transport 111
5.1 Basic Relations 111
5.2 Diffusion Solutions 113
5.3 Low-Pressure Solutions 119
5.4 Diffusion Across a Magnetic Field 123
5.5 Magnetic Multipole Confinement 129
Problems 133
6 dc Sheaths 137
6.1 Basic Concepts and Equations 137
6.2 The Bohm Sheath Criterion 139
6.3 The High-Voltage Sheath 145
6.4 Generalized Criteria for Sheath Formation 147
6.5 High-Voltage Collisional Sheaths 152
6.6 Electrostatic Probe Diagnostics 153
Problems 167
7 Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium 171
7.1 Introduction 171
7.2 Energy and Enthalpy 172
7.3 Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy 179
7.4 Chemical Equilibrium 184
7.5 Heterogeneous Equilibrium 187
Problems 191
8 Molecular Collisions 195
8.1 Introduction 195
8.2 Molecular Structure 195
8.3 Electron Collisions with Molecules 202
8.4 Heavy-Particle Collisions 211
8.5 Reaction Rates and Detailed Balancing 221
8.6 Optical Emission and Actinometry 229
Problems 237
9 Chemical Kinetics and Surface Processes 243
9.1 Elementary Reactions 243
9.2 Gas-Phase Kinetics 246
9.3 Surface Processes 253
9.4 Surface Kinetics 263
9.5 Showerhead Gas Flow 270
Problems 273
10 Particle and Energy Balance in Discharges 279
10.1 Introduction 279
10.2 Electropositive Plasma Equilibrium 281
10.3 Electronegative Plasma Equilibrium 289
10.4 Approximate Electronegative Equilibria 297
10.5 Electronegative Discharge Experiments and Simulations 304
10.6 Pulsed Discharges 313
Problems 324
11 Low-Pressure Capacitive Discharges 329
11.1 Homogeneous Model 330
11.2 Inhomogeneous Model 340
11.3 Experiments and Simulations 353
11.4 Asymmetric Discharges 365
11.5 Voltage-Driven Sheaths and Series Resonance 369
11.6 Multi-frequency Capacitive Discharges 372
11.7 Standing Wave and Skin Effects 383
11.8 Low-Frequency Sheaths 391
11.9 Ion-Bombarding Energy at Electrodes 394
11.10 Magnetically Enhanced Discharges 401
11.11 Matching Networks and Power Measurements 406
Problems 410
12 Inductive Discharges 415
12.1 High-Density, Low-Pressure Discharges 415
12.2 Other Operating Regimes 422
12.3 Planar Coil Configuration 430
12.4 High-Efficiency Planar Discharges 436
Problems 441
13 Wave-Heated Discharges 445
13.1 Electron Cyclotron Resonance Discharges 445
13.2 Helicon Discharges 464
13.3 Surface Wave Discharges 473
Problems 477
14 dc Discharges 479
14.1 Qualitative Characteristics of Glow Discharges 479
14.2 Analysis of the Positive Column 482
14.3 Analysis of the Cathode Region 485
14.4 Hollow Cathode Discharges 492
14.5 Planar Magnetron Discharges 498
14.6 Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition 507
Problems 510
15 High-Pressure Capacitive Discharges 513
15.1 Introduction 513
15.2 Intermediate Pressure RF Discharges 514
15.3 Alpha-to-Gamma (α–γ) Transition 524
15.4 Atmospheric Pressure RF Discharges 534
15.5 Atmospheric Pressure Low-Frequency Discharges 548
Problems 556
16 Etching 561
16.1 Etch Requirements and Processes 561
16.2 Etching Kinetics 568
16.3 Halogen Atom Etching of Silicon 575
16.4 Other Etch Systems 588
16.5 Atomic Layer Etching (ALE) 595
16.6 Substrate Charging 608
Problems 616
17 Deposition and Implantation 619
17.1 Introduction 619
17.2 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition 621
17.3 Atomic Layer Deposition 628
17.4 Sputter Deposition 636
17.5 Plasma-Immersion Ion Implantation 640
Problems 651
18 Dusty Plasmas 655
18.1 Qualitative Description of Phenomena 655
18.2 Particle Charging and Discharge Equilibrium 656
18.3 Particulate Equilibrium 662
18.4 Formation and Growth of Dust Grains 665
18.5 Physical Phenomena and Diagnostics 670
18.6 Removal or Production of Particulates 675
Problems 677
19 Kinetic Theory of Discharges 681
19.1 Basic Concepts 681
19.2 Local Kinetics 690
19.3 Nonlocal Kinetics 693
19.4 Quasilinear Diffusion and Stochastic Heating 697
19.5 Energy Diffusion in a Skin Depth Layer 703
19.6 Kinetic Modeling of Discharges 707
Problems 714
Appendix A Collision Dynamics 717
A.1 Coulomb Cross Section 718
Appendix B The Collision Integral 721
B.1 Boltzmann Collision Integral 721
B.2 Maxwellian Distribution 722
Appendix C Diffusion Solutions for Variable Mobility Model 723
References 727
Index 749
