Pragmatic Logic

1. Logic as a Foundation of Teaching.- I Words, Thoughts and Objects.- I Expressions and Their Meanings.- 2. Understanding of Expressions.- 3. Meaning of Expressions.- 4. Language and Meaning.- 5. Speech as a Way of Communicating Thoughts.- II Statements and Their Parts.- 6. Proposition and Sentence.- 7. Parts of Statements Syntactical Categories.- 8. Complex Statements.- 9. Simple Statements.- 10. Statement Schemata and Statements Derived from Them.- III Objective Counterparts of Expressions.- A. Extension of Terms.- 11. Designating and Designata.- 12. Denotation and Extension.- 13. Relations between Extensions.- 14. Unions and Intersections of Sets.- 15. Logical Partition.- B. Intension of Terms.- 16. Complete and Characteristic Intension.- 17. Linguistic Intension.- IV Ambiguity of Expressions and Defects of Meanings.- 18. Ambiguity.- 19. Vagueness.- 20. Incomplete Formulations.- V Definitions.- 21. Two Ways of Understanding the Term "Definition".- 22. The Concept of Nominal Definition.- 23. Definitions by Abstraction and Inductive Definitions.- 24. Errors in Defining.- 25. Stipulating and Reporting Definitions.- 26. Definitions by Postulates and Pseudo-definitions by Postulates.- 27. The Concept of Real Definition.- VI Questions and Interrogative Sentences.- 28. The Structure of Interrogative Sentences.- 29. Decision Questions and Complementation Questions.- 30. Assumptions of Questions Suggestive Questions.- 31. Improper Answers.- 32. Thoughts Expressed by an Interrogative Sentence.- 33. Didactic Questions.- II Inference.- I Formal Logic and the Consequence Relation.- 34. Formal Logic.- 35. Logical Consequence.- 36. The Relationship between the Truth of the Reason and the Truth of the Consequence.- 37. Enthymematic Consequence.- II Inference and the Conditions of Its Correctness.- 38. The Concept of Inference.- 39. Conditions of Correctness of Inference.- III Subjectively Certain Inference.- 40. The Conclusiveness of Subjectively Certain Inference.- 41. The Conclusiveness of Subjectively Certain Inference in the Light of the Knowledge of the Person Involved.- 42. Deductive Inference.- 43. Deducing.- IV Subjectively Uncertain Inference.- 44. The Conclusiveness of Subjectively Uncertain Inference.- 45. Logical Probability versus Mathematical Probability.- 46. Statistical Probability.- 47. Reductive Inference.- 48. Induction by Enumeration.- 49. Inference by Analogy.- 50. Induction by Elimination.- III Methodological Types of Sciences.- I The Division of Sciences into Deductive and Inductive.- 51. The Methodology of Sciences.- 52. Deductive and Inductive Sciences.- II Deductive Sciences.- 53. Deductive Sciences at the Pre-axiomatic Intuitive Stage.- 54. Deductive Sciences at the Axiomatic Intuitive Stage.- 55. The Philosophical Controversy over the Substantiation of Primitive Theorems in Intuitively Approached Deductive Sciences.- 56. Deductive Sciences at the Abstract Axiomatic Stage.- 57. Formalized Deductive Theories.- (a) Rules of Defining.- (b) Rules of Inference.- (c) Construction of Formalized Theories.- 58. Deductive Theories from the Apragmatic Point of View.- (a) Consistency of Theories.- (b) Independence of Axioms.- (c) Deductive Completeness of Theories.- (d) Completeness of Deductive Systems.- III The Inductive Sciences.- A. the Empirical Foundations.- 59. Irrevocable Assumptions and Theorems in the Inductive Sciences.- 60. Protocol Statements.- 61. The Method of Direct Experience as Subjective and Unrepeatable.- 62. Observation and Experiment.- B. Counting and Measurement.- 63. Selected Concepts in the Theory of Relations Numbers and Counting.- (a) Preliminary Remarks.- (b) The Concept of Relation.- (c) Properties of Equivalence Relations. Types of Equivalence Properties.- (d) Many-one, One-many Relations. The Concept of Equipotence of Sets.- (e) Numbers.- (f) Counting.- 64. Selected Concepts in the Relations Theory (ctd.). Ordering Relations. Isomorphism and Homomorphism of Relations.- (a) Preliminary Remarks.- (b) Ordering Relations.- (c) Isomorphism of Relations.- (d) Homomorphism of Relations.- (e) Abstraction Relations.- 65. Magnitudes and Scaling.- (a) Primary and Secondary Properties of Abstraction.- (b) Ordered Families of Abstraction Properties Magnitudes.- 66. Additive Magnitudes.- 67. Examples of Definitions of a Physical Sum of Magnitudes.- 68. The Measurement Function.- 69. Measurement Proper.- 70. Measurement without a Unit of Measurement and Measurement without a Zero Point.- IV Inductive Sciences and Scientific Laws.- A. General Laws.- 71. General Laws which State Relationships between Constant and Variable Properties.- 72. General Laws which State Relationships between Variable Properties Functional Laws and Parametric Laws.- B. Statistical Laws.- 73. Statistical Laws which State the Degree of Association of Constant Properties.- 74. Laws of Statistical Distributions.- (a) Laws of Distribution of Probabilities of Discrete Variables.- (b) Laws of Probability Density Distribution for Continuous Variables.- (c) Binomial Distribution.- (d) Normal Distribution.- 75. Laws on Correlation of Variable Properties.- V Statistical Reasoning.- 76. Introductory Remarks.- 77. Estimation of Parameters.- 78. Levelling of Errors of Measurement as Example of Estimation of Parameters.- 79. Verification of Hypotheses and Statistical Tests.- Supplement: Proving and Explaining.