Power Electronics

Preface xvii About the Author xxiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Applications of Power Electronics 2 1.2 History of Power Electronics 4 1.3 Types of Power Electronic Circuits 6 1.4 Design of Power Electronics Equipment 10 1.5 Determining the Root-Mean-Square Values of Waveforms 11 1.6 Peripheral Effects 12 1.7 Characteristics and Specifications of Switches 15 1.7.1 Ideal Characteristics 15 1.7.2 Characteristics of Practical Devices 16 1.7.3 Switch Specifications 18 1.8 Power Semiconductor Devices 19 1.9 Control Characteristics of Power Devices 25 1.10 Device Choices 25 1.11 Power Modules 29 1.12 Intelligent Modules 29 1.13 Power Electronics Journals and Conferences 31 Summary 32 References 32 Review Questions 33 Problems 33 PART I Power Diodes and Rectifiers 35 Chapter 2 Power Diodes and Switched RLC Circuits 35 2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 Semiconductor Basics 36 2.3 Diode Characteristics 38 2.4 Reverse Recovery Characteristics 41 2.5 Power Diode Types 44 2.5.1 General-Purpose Diodes 44 2.5.2 Fast-Recovery Diodes 45 2.5.3 Schottky Diodes 46 2.6 Silicon Carbide Diodes 46 2.7 Silicon Carbide Schottky Diodes 47 2.8 Spice Diode Model 48 2.9 Series-Connected Diodes 49 2.10 Parallel-Connected Diodes 53 2.11 Diode Switched RC Load 54 2.12 Diode Switched RL Load 56 2.13 Diode Switched LC Load 58 2.14 Diode Switched RLC Load 61 2.15 Frewheeling Diodes With Switched RL Load 65 2.16 Recovery of Trapped Energy with a Diode 68 Summary 72 References 72 Review Questions 73 Problems 73 Chapter 3 Diode Rectifiers 79 3.1 Introduction 80 3.2 Performance Parameters 80 3.3 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifiers 82 3.4 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier with RL Load 85 3.5 Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier with a Highly Inductive Load 92 3.6 Multiphase Star Rectifiers 94 3.7 Three-Phase Bridge Rectifiers 98 3.8 Three-Phase Bridge Rectifier with RL Load 102 3.9 Three-Phase Rectifier With A Highly Inductive Load 106 3.10 Comparisons of Diode Rectifiers 108 3.11 Rectifier Circuit Design 108 3.12 Output Voltage with LC Filter 120 3.13 Effects of Source and Load Inductances 124 3.14 Practical Considerations for Selecting Inductors and Capacitors 127 3.14.1 AC Film Capacitors 127 3.14.2 Ceramic Capacitors 128 3.14.3 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors 128 3.14.4 Solid Tantalum Capacitors 129 3.14.5 Supercapacitors 129 Summary 129 References 129 Review Questions 130 Problems 130 PART II Power Transistors and DC-DC Converters 134 Chapter 4 Power Transistors 134 4.1 Introduction 135 4.2 Silicon Carbide Transistors 136 4.3 Power MOSFETs 137 4.3.1 Steady-State Characteristics 140 4.3.2 Switching Characteristics 143 4.3.3 Silicon Carbide MOSFETs 145 4.4 COOLMOS 147 4.5 Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFETs) 149 4.5.1 Operation and Characteristics of JFETs 149 4.5.2 Silicon Carbide JFET Structures 153 4.6 Bipolar Junction Transistors 156 4.6.1 Steady-State Characteristics 157 4.6.2 Switching Characteristics 161 4.6.3 Switching Limits 168 4.6.4 Silicon Carbide BJTs 169 4.7 IGBTs 170 4.7.1 Silicon Carbide IGBTs 173 4.8 SITs 174 4.9 Comparisons of Transistors 175 4.10 Power Derating of Power Transistors 175 4.11 di/dt and dv/dt Limitations 179 4.12 Series and Parallel Operation 182 4.13 SPICE Models 184 4.13.1 BJT SPICE Model 184 4.13.2 MOSFET SPICE Model 186 4.13.3 IGBT SPICE Model 187 4.14 MOSFET Gate Drive 189 4.15 JFET Gate Drives 191 4.16 BJT Base Drive 192 4.17 Isolation of Gate and Base Drives 197 4.17.1 Pulse Transformers 199 4.17.2 Optocouplers 199 4.18 GATE-DRIVE ICs 200 Summary 202 References 203 Review Questions 206 Problems 208 Chapter 5 DC-DC Converters 210 5.1 Introduction 211 5.2 Performance Parameters of DC-DC Converters 211 5.3 Principle of Step-Down Operation 212 5.3.1 Generation of Duty Cycle 216 5.4 Step-Down Converter with RL Load 217 5.5 Principle of Step-Up Operation 222 5.6 Step-Up Converter With a Resistive Load 225 5.7 Frequency Limiting Parameters 227 5.8 Converter Classification 228 5.9 Switching-Mode Regulators 232 5.9.1 Buck Regulators 233 5.9.2 Boost Regulators 237 5.9.3 Buck-Boost Regulators 241 5.9.4 Cuk Regulators 245 5.9.5 Limitations of Single-Stage Conversion 251 5.10 Comparison of Regulators 252 5.11 Multioutput Boost Converter 253 5.12 Diode Rectifier-Fed Boost Converter 256 5.13 Averaging Models of Converters 258 5.14 State-Space Analysis of Regulators 264 5.15 Design Considerations For Input Filter And Converters 268 5.16 Drive IC for Converters 273 Summary 275 References 277 Review Questions 279 Problems 279 PART III Inverters 282 Chapter 6 DC-AC Converters 282 6.1 Introduction 283 6.2 Performance Parameters 283 6.3 Principle of Operation 285 6.4 Single-Phase Bridge Inverters 289 6.5 Three-Phase Inverters 295 6.5.1 180-Degree Conduction 296 6.5.2 120-Degree Conduction 303 6.6 Voltage Control of Single-Phase Inverters 306 6.6.1 Multiple-Pulse-Width Modulation 306 6.6.2 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation 309 6.6.3 Modified Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation 312 6.6.4 Phase-Displacement Control 315 6.7 Voltage Control of Three-Phase Inverters 316 6.7.1 Sinusoidal PWM 317 6.7.2 60-Degree PWM 320 6.7.3 Third-Harmonic PWM 320 6.7.4 Space Vector Modulation 323 6.7.5 Comparison of PWM Techniques 335 6.8 Harmonic Reductions 335 6.9 Current-Source Inverters 340 6.10 Variable DC-Link Inverter 342 6.11 Boost Inverter 344 6.12 Inverter Circuit Design 349 Summary 354 References 354 Review Questions 356 Problems 356 Chapter 7 Resonant Pulse Inverters 361 7.1 Introduction 362 7.2 Series Resonant Inverters 362 7.2.1 Series Resonant Inverters with Unidirectional Switches 363 7.2.2 Series Resonant Inverters with Bidirectional Switches 372 7.3 Frequency Response of Series Resonant Inverters 378 7.3.1 Frequency Response for Series Loaded 378 7.3.2 Frequency Response for Parallel Loaded 381 7.3.3 Frequency Response for Series-Parallel Loaded 383 7.4 Parallel Resonant Inverters 384 7.5 Voltage Control of Resonant Inverters 388 7.6 Class E Resonant Inverter 390 7.7 Class E Resonant Rectifier 394 7.8 Zero-Current-Switching Resonant Converters 398 7.8.1 L-Type ZCS Resonant Converter 399 7.8.2 M-Type ZCS Resonant Converter 402 7.9 Zero-Voltage-Switching Resonant Converters 402 7.10 Comparisons Between ZCS and ZVS Resonant Converters 406 7.11 Two-Quadrant ZVS Resonant Converters 407 7.12 Resonant DC-Link Inverters 409 Summary 413 References 414 Review Questions 414 Problems 415 Chapter 8 Multilevel Inverters 417 8.1 Introduction 417 8.2 Multilevel Concept 418 8.3 Types of Multilevel Inverters 420 8.4 Diode-Clamped Multilevel Inverter 420 8.4.1 Principle of Operation 421 8.4.2 Features of Diode-Clamped Inverter 422 8.4.3 Improved Diode-Clamped Inverter 424 8.5 Flying-Capacitors Multilevel Inverter 426 8.5.1 Principle of Operation 426 8.5.2 Features of Flying-Capacitors Inverter 428 8.6 Cascaded Multilevel Inverter 429 8.6.1 Principle of Operation 429 8.6.2 Features of Cascaded Inverter 431 8.7 Applications 433 8.7.1 Reactive Power Compensation 433 8.7.2 Back-to-Back lntertie 435 8.7.3 Adjustable Speed Drives 435 8.8 Switching Device Currents 436 8.9 DC-Link Capacitor Voltage Balancing 437 8.10 Features of Multilevel Inverters 438 8.11 Comparisons of Multilevel Converters 439 Summary 440 References 440 Review Questions 441 Problems 441 PART IV Thyristors and Thyristorized Converters 443 Chapter 9 Thyristors 443 9.1 Introduction 443 9.2 Thyristor Characteristics 444 9.3 Two-Transistor Model of Thyristor 447 9.4 Thyristor Turn-On 449 9.5 Thyristor Turn-Off 451 9.6 Thyristor Types 453 9.6.1 Phase-Controlled Thyristors 453 9.6.2 Bidirectional Phase-Controlled Thyristors 454 9.6.3 Fast-Switching Asymmetrical Thyristors 455 9.6.4 Light-Activated Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 456 9.6.5 Bidirectional Triode Thyristors 456 9.6.6 Reverse-Conducting Thyristors 457 9.6.7 Gate Turn-off Thyristors 457 9.6.8 FET-Controlled Thyristors 462 9.6.9 MTOs 463 9.6.10 ETOs 464 9.6.11 IGCTs 465 9.6.12 MCTs 466 9.6.13 SITHs 469 9.6.14 Comparisons of Thyristors 470 9.7 Series Operation of Thyristors 475 9.8 Parallel Operation of Thyristors 478 9.9 di/dt Protection 479 9.10 dv/dt Protection 480 9.11 SPICE Thyristor Model 482 9.11.1 Thyristor SPICE Model 482 9.11.2 GTO SPICE Model 484 9.11.3 MCT SPICE Model 486 9.11.4 SITH SPICE Model 486 9.12 DIACs 486 9.13 Thyristor Firing Circuits 489 9.14 Unijunction Transistor 492 9.15 Programmable Unijunction Transistor 494 Summary 496 References 497 Review Questions 500 Problems 501 Chapter 10 Controlled Rectifiers 503 10.1 Introduction 504 10.2 Single-Phase Full Converters 504 10.2.1 Single-Phase Full Converter with RL Load 508 10.3 Single-Phase Dual Converters 511 10.4 Three-Phase Full Converters 514 10.4.1 Three-Phase Full Converter with RL Load 518 10.5 Three-Phase Dual Converters 520 10.6 Pulse-Width-Modulation Control 523 10.6.1 PWM Control 524 10.6.2 Single-Phase Sinusoidal PWM 526 10.6.3 Three-Phase PWM Rectifier 527 10.7 Single-Phase Series Converters 531 10.8 Twelve-Pulse Converters 534 10.9 Design of Converter Circuits 536 10.10 Effects of Load and Source Inductances 542 Summary 544 References 544 Review Questions 546 Problems 546 Chapter 11 AC Voltage Controllers 552 11.1 Introduction 553 11.2 Performance Parameters of AC Voltage Controllers 554 11.3 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controllers with Resistive Loads 555 11.4 Single-Phase Full-Wave Controllers with Inductive Loads 559 11.5 Three-Phase Full-Wave Controllers 563 11.6 Three-Phase Full-Wave Delta-Connected Controllers 568 11.7 Single-Phase Transformer Connection Changers 572 11.8 Cycloconverters 577 11.8.1 Single-Phase Cycloconverters 577 11.8.2 Three-Phase Cycloconverters 580 11.8.3 Reduction of Output Harmonics 581 11.9 AC Voltage Controllers with PWM Control 584 11.10 Matrix Converter 586 11.11 Design of AC Voltage-Controller Circuits 588 11.12 Effects of Source and Load Inductances 596 Summary 597 References 597 Review Questions 598 Problems 598 PART V Power Electronics Applications and Protection 602 Chapter 12 Flexible AC Transmission Systems 602 12.1 Introduction 603 12.2 Principle of Power Transmission 604 12.3 Principle of Shunt Compensation 606 12.4 Shunt Compensators 608 12.4.1 Thyristor-controlled Reactor 608 12.4.2 Thyristor-Switched Capacitor 609 12.4.3 Static VAR Compensator 612 12.4.4 Advanced Static VAR Compensator 613 12.5 Principle of Series Compensation 615 12.6 Series Compensators 617 12.6.1 Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor 617 12.6.2 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor 619 12.6.3 Forced-Commutation-Controlled Series Capacitor 620 12.6.4 Series Static VAR Compensator 621 12.6.5 Advanced SSVC 621 12.7 Principle of Phase-Angle Compensation 624 12.8 Phase-Angle Compensator 627 12.9 Unified Power Flow Controller 628 12.10 Comparisons of Compensators 629 Summary 631 References 631 Review Questions 632 Problems 632 Chapter 13 Power Supplies 634 13.1 Introduction 635 13.2 DC Power Supplies 635 13.2.1 Switched-Mode DC Power Supplies 636 13.2.2 Flyback Converter 636 13.2.3 Forward Converter 640 13.2.4 Push-Pull Converter 645 13.2.5 Half-Bridge Converter 647 13.2.6 Full-Bridge Converter 650 13.2.7 Resonant DC Power Supplies 653 13.2.8 Bidirectional Power Supplies 655 13.3 AC Power Supplies 655 13.3.1 Switched-Mode AC Power Supplies 657 13.3.2 Resonant AC Power Supplies 657 13.3.3 Bidirectional AC Power Supplies 658 13.4 Multistage Conversions 659 13.5 Control Circuits 660 13.6 Magnetic Design Considerations 664 13.6.1 Transformer Design 664 13.6.2 DC Inductor 668 13.6.3 Magnetic Saturation 669 Summary 670 References 670 Review Questions 671 Problems 671 Chapter 14 DC Drives 675 14.1 Introduction 676 14.2 Basic Characteristics of Dc Motors 677 14.2.1 Separately Excited DC Motor 677 14.2.2 Series-Excited DC Motor 680 14.2.3 Gear Ratio 682 14.3 Operating Modes 684 14.4 Single-Phase Drives 686 14.4.1 Single-Phase Semiconverter Drives 688 14.4.2 Single-Phase Full-Converter Drives 689 14.4.3 Single-Phase Dual-Converter Drives 690 14.5 Three-Phase Drives 694 14.5.1 Three-Phase Semiconverter Drives 694 14.5.2 Three-Phase Full-Converter Drives 694 14.5.3 Three-Phase Dual-Converter Drives 695 14.6 Dc-Dc Converter Drives 698 14.6.1 Principle of Power Control 698 14.6.2 Principle of Regenerative Brake Control 700 14.6.3 Principle of Rheostatic Brake Control 703 14.6.4 Principle of Combined Regenerative and Rheostatic Brake Control 704 14.6.5 Two- and Four-Quadrant DC-DC Converter Drives 705 14.6.6 Multiphase DC-DC Converters 706 14.7 Closed-Loop Control of dc Drives 709 14.7.1 Open-Loop Transfer Function 709 14.7.2 Open-Loop Transfer Function of Separately Excited Motors 710 14.7.3 Open-Loop Transfer Function of Series Excited Motors 713 14.7.4 Converter Control Models 715 14.7.5 Closed-Loop Transfer Function 717 14.7.6 Closed-Loop Current Control 720 14.7.7 Design of Current Controller 723 14.7.8 Design of Speed Controller 723 14.7.9 DC-DC Converter-Fed Drive 729 14.7.10 Phase-Locked-Loop Control 730 14.7.11 Microcomputer Control of DC Drives 732 Summary 734 References 734 Review Questions 735 Problems 736 Chapter 15 AC Drives 740 15.1 Introduction 741 15.2 Induction Motor Drives 741 15.2.1 Performance Characteristics 743 15.2.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics 745 15.2.3 Stator Voltage Control 750 15.2.4 Rotor Voltage Control 754 15.2.5 Frequency Control 763 15.2.6 Voltage and Frequency Control 765 15.2.7 Current Control 770 15.2.8 Constant Slip-Speed Control 775 15.2.9 Voltage, Current, and Frequency Control 776 15.3 Closed-Loop Control of Induction Motors 778 15.4 Dimensioning the Control Variables 782 15.5 Vector Controls 784 15.5.1 Basic Principle of Vector Control 784 15.5.2 Direct and Quadrature-Axis Transformation 786 15.5.3 Indirect Vector Control 791 15.5.4 Direct Vector Control 795 15.6 Synchronous Motor Drives 797 15.6.1 Cylindrical Rotor Motors 798 15.6.2 Salient-Pole Motors 801 15.6.3 Reluctance Motors 802 15.6.4 Switched Reluctance Motors 803 15.6.5 Permanent-Magnet Motors 805 15.6.6 Closed-Loop Control of Synchronous Motors 808 15.6.7 Brushless DC and AC Motor Drives 810 15.7 Design of Speed Controller For Pmsm Drives 812 15.7.1 System Block Diagram 812 15.7.2 Current Loop 814 15.7.3 Speed Controller 815 15.8 Stepper Motor Control 818 15.8.1 Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motors 818 15.8.2 Permanent-Magnet Stepper Motors 821 15.9 Linear Induction Motors 825 15.10 High-Voltage IC for Motor Drives 828 Summary 833 References 834 Review Questions 835 Problems 836 Chapter 16 Introduction to Renewable Energy 840 16.1 Introduction 841 16.2 Energy and Power 842 16.3 Renewable Energy Generation System 843 16.3.1 Turbine 844 16.3.2 Thermal Cycle 845 16.4 Solar Energy Systems 847 16.4.1 Solar Energy 847 16.4.2 Photovoltaic 850 16.4.3 Photovoltaic Cells 850 16.4.4 PV Models 851 16.4.5 Photovoltaic Systems 857 16.5 Wind Energy 860 16.5.1 Wind Turbines 860 16.5.2 Turbine Power 861 16.5.3 Speed and Pitch Control 864 16.5.4 Power Curve 865 16.5.5 Wind Energy Systems 866 16.5.6 Doubly Fed Induction Generators 869 16.5.7 Squirrel-Cage Induction Generators 870 16.5.8 Synchronous Generators 871 16.5.9 Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Generators 872 16.5.10 Switched Reluctance Generator 873 16.5.11 Comparisons of the Wind Turbine Power Configurations 873 16.6 Ocean Energy 874 16.6.1 Wave Energy 874 16.6.2 Mechanism of Wave Generation 875 16.6.3 Wave Power 876 16.6.4 Tidal Energy 879 16.6.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 881 16.7 Hydropower Energy 882 16.7.1 Large-Scale Hydropower 882 16.7.2 Small-Scale Hydropower 883 16.8 Fuel Cells 886 16.8.1 Hydrogen Generation and Fuel Cells 887 16.8.2 Types of Fuel Cells 888 16.8.3 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) 889 16.8.4 Direct-Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) 890 16.8.5 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) 892 16.8.6 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PCFC) 893 16.8.7 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 894 16.8.8 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 895 16.8.9 Thermal and Electrical Processes of Fuel Cells 896 16.9 Geothermal Energy 900 16.10 Biomass Energy 900 Summary 901 References 901 Review Questions 902 Problems 903 Chapter 17 Protection of Devices and Circuits 907 17.1 Introduction 907 17.2 Cooling and Heat Sinks 908 17.3 Thermal Modeling of Power Switching Devices 913 17.3.1 Electrical Equivalent Thermal Model 914 17.3.2 Mathematical Thermal Equivalent Circuit 916 17.3.3 Coupling of Electrical and Thermal Components 917 17.4 Snubber Circuits 919 17.5 Reverse Recovery Transients 920 17.6 Supply- and Load-Side Transients 926 17.7 Voltage Protection by Selenium Diodes and Metaloxide Varistors 929 17.8 Current Protections 931 17.8.1 Fusing 931 17.8.2 Fault Current with AC Source 934 17.8.3 Fault Current with DC Source 936 17.9 Electromagnetic Interference 939 17.9.1 Sources of EMI 940 17.9.2 Minimizing EMI Generation 940 17.9.3 EMI Shielding 941 17.9.4 EMI Standards 941 Summary 942 References 943 Review Questions 943 Problems 944 Appendix A Three-Phase Circuits 947 Appendix B Magnetic Circuits 951 Appendix C Switching Functions of Converters 959 Appendix D DC Transient Analysis 965 Appendix E Fourier Analysis 969 Appendix F Reference Frame Transformation 972 Bibliography 976 Answers to Selected Problems Index