Preface xi
Editor Biography xiii
1 Introduction to Polymer Crystallization 1
N.M. Nurazzi, M.N.F. Norrrahim, S.S. Shazleen, M.M. Harussani, F.A. Sabaruddin, and M.R.M. Asyraf
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Degree of Crystallinity 3
1.3 Thermodynamics on the Crystallization of Polymers Characteristics 4
1.4 Polymer Crystallization Mechanism 5
1.4.1 Strain-Induced Crystallization of Polymer 5
1.4.2 Crystallization of Polymer from Solution 7
1.5 Applications of Crystalline Polymer 8
References 10
2 Characterization of Polymer Crystallization by Using Thermal Analysis 13
Kai Yang, Xiuling Zhang, Mohanapriya Venkataraman, Jakub Wiener, and Jiri Militky
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Basic Principle 14
2.2.1 General Idea 14
2.2.2 Application of DSC Method 15
2.3 Characterization of Polymer Crystallization According to Isothermal Crystallization Process 16
2.3.1 Performance of Isothermal Crystallization Process 16
2.3.2 Analysis of Isothermal Crystallization Process 16
2.3.2.1 Crystal Geometry 17
2.3.2.2 Characterization of Crystallization Rate 18
2.3.2.3 Characterization of Crystallization Activation Energy 18
2.3.3 Isothermal Crystallization of Some Polymer Composites 19
2.4 Characterization of Polymer Non-isothermal Crystallization Process 20
2.4.1 Basics of Nonlinear Crystallization Modeling 20
2.4.2 Performance of Non-isothermal Crystallization Process 20
2.4.3 Analysis of Crystal Geometry During Non-isothermal Crystallization Process 21
2.4.3.1 Jeziorny-Modified Avrami Equation 21
2.4.3.2 Ozawa Model 21
2.4.3.3 Mo model 25
2.4.4 Determination of Crystallization Activation Energy (E) 26
2.4.5 Analysis of Relative Crystallinity 27
2.5 Conclusion 27
Acknowledgment 28
Abbreviations 28
References 28
3 Crystallization Behavior of Polypropylene and Its Blends and Composites 33
Daniela Mileva, Davide Tranchida, Enrico Carmeli, Dietrich Gloger, and Markus Gahleitner
3.1 Introduction – Polypropylene Crystallinity in Perspective 33
3.2 Chain Structure and Molecular Weight Effects for iPP Crystallinity and Polymorphism 37
3.3 Nucleation of iPP 42
3.4 Crystallization in Multiphase Copolymers, Blends, and Composites 47
3.5 Processing Effects and Resulting Properties 54
3.6 Investigation Methods for PP Crystallization and Morphology 60
Acknowledgments 64
References 65
4 Crystallization of PE and PE-Based Blends, and Composites 87
Amirhosein Sarafpour, Gholamreza Pircheraghi, Farzad Gholami, Rouhollah Shami-Zadeh, and Farzad Jani
4.1 An Introduction to Polyethylene, Its Crystallization, and Kinetics 87
4.1.1 Basics of Structure and Morphology 87
4.1.2 Theory of Crystallization and Its Kinetics 92
4.2 Experimental Study on Crystallization Kinetics of Polyethylene 93
4.2.1 Isothermal Crystallization 93
4.2.2 Non-isothermal Crystallization 96
4.3 Nucleation Theory 99
4.4 Crystal Growth 100
4.5 PE Blends and Co-crystallization 103
4.6 PE Nanocomposites 109
4.7 Summary 112
References 112
5 Crystallization of PLA and Its Blends and Composites 121
Jesus M. Quiroz-Castillo, Ana D. Cabrera-Gonzalez, Luis A. Val-Felix, and Tomas J. Madera-Santana
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Crystallization of Macromolecules 123
5.2.1 Improvement of PLA Crystallization Kinetics 126
5.3 Polylactic Acid Nucleation 130
5.3.1 Inorganic Nucleating Agents 130
5.3.2 Organic Nucleating Agents 133
5.4 Polylactic Acid Blends 136
5.4.1 Polylactic Acid Binary Blends with Biopolymers–Starch and PHAs 136
5.4.2 Polylactic Acid Binary Blends with Biodegradable Polymers – PCL, PBAT, and PBS 138
5.5 Polylactic Acid Composites 139
5.5.1 Polylactic Acid – Natural Fiber Composites 139
5.5.2 Polylactic Acid – Nanocomposites 140
5.6 Conclusions 143
References 144
6 Crystallization in PLLA-Based Blends, and Composites 161
Pratick Samanta and Bhanu Nandan
6.1 Introduction 161
6.2 Chemical and Crystal Structure of PLLA 162
6.3 PLLA Properties: Glass Transition and Melting Temperature 162
6.3.1 Glass Transition Temperature 162
6.3.2 Melting Temperature 163
6.4 PLLA Crystallization 163
6.4.1 PLLA Crystallization Study Through Spherulite Growth 163
6.4.2 Lauritzen and Hoffman Theory in PLLA Crystallization 164
6.4.3 Crystallization Kinetics Through Calorimetry Study 166
6.5 Crystallization of PLLA in Blends 168
6.6 Crystallization of PLLA in Nanocomposites 172
6.7 Crystallization of PLLA in Block Copolymer 175
6.8 Crystallization of PLLA After Adding Nucleating Agents 178
6.9 PLLA Plasticization 182
6.10 Conclusion and Future Outlook 182
References 183
7 Crystallization in PCL-Based Blends and Composites 195
Madhushree Hegde, Akshatha Chandrashekar, Mouna Nataraja, Jineesh A. Gopi, Niranjana Prabhu, and Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai
7.1 Introduction 195
7.2 Crystallinity of PCL and the Factors Affecting Crystallinity 195
7.3 Crystalline Behavior of PCL-Based Multiphase Polymer Systems 199
7.3.1 Crystallization Behavior of Blends of PCL 199
7.3.2 Crystallization Behavior of Block Copolymers of PCL 202
7.3.3 Effect of Fillers on the Crystalline Behavior of PCL 203
7.4 Conclusion 207
References 208
8 Crystallization and Shape Memory Effect 215
Shiji Mathew
8.1 Introduction 215
8.2 Shape Memory Cycle 216
8.3 Mechanism of Shape Memory Effect 217
8.4 Types of Shape Memory Polymers 218
8.5 Biomedical Applications of Shape Memory Polymers 218
8.5.1 Tissue Engineering 218
8.5.2 Bone Engineering 220
8.5.3 Medical Stents 221
8.5.4 Drug Delivery Application 222
8.5.5 SMPs as Self-Healing Materials 222
8.5.6 Vascular Embolization 226
8.6 Conclusion 227
References 227
9 3D Printing of Crystalline Polymers 233
Hiriyalu S. Ashrith, Tamalapura P. Jeevan, and Hanume Gowda V. Divya
9.1 Introduction 233
9.2 3D Printing Materials and Processes 234
9.2.1 Nylon and Polyamides 234
9.2.2 Polyethylene 238
9.2.3 Polyethylene Terephthalate 240
9.2.4 Polypropylene 241
9.2.5 Polylactic Acid 243
9.3 Characterization of 3D-Printed Crystalline Polymers 244
9.3.1 Mechanical Properties/Mechanical Characteristics 244
9.3.2 Thermal Properties/Thermal Characteristics 246
9.3.3 Tribological Properties/Tribological Characteristics 247
9.4 Conclusion 248
References 250
10 Crystallization from Anisotropic Polymer Melts 255
Daniel P. da Silva, James J. Holt, Supatra Pratumshat, Paula Pascoal-Faria, Artur Mateus, and Geoffrey R. Mitchell
10.1 Introduction 255
10.2 Evaluating Anisotropy 256
10.3 Crystallization During Deformation of Networks 258
10.4 Sheared Polymer Melts 260
10.5 Crystallization During Injection Molding 264
10.6 Sheared Polymer Melts with Nucleating Agents 266
10.7 Sheared Polymer Melts with Nanoparticles 271
10.8 3D Printing Using Extrusion 272
10.8.1 In-Situ Studies of Polymer Crystallization During 3D Printing 273
10.9 Morphology Mapping 275
10.10 Discussion 276
Acknowledgments 277
References 277
11 Molecular Simulations of Polymer Crystallization 283
Yijing Nie and Jianlong Wen
11.1 Introduction 283
11.2 Establishment of Polymer Simulation Systems 283
11.2.1 MC Simulations 284
11.2.2 MD Simulations 284
11.2.2.1 United Atom Chain Model 285
11.2.2.2 Coarse-Grained Polymer Model 285
11.3 Polymer Crystallization at Quiescent State 285
11.3.1 Crystal Nucleation 285
11.3.2 Intramolecular Nucleation Model 287
11.4 Nanofiller-Induced Polymer Crystallization 288
11.4.1 Nanofiller-Induced Homopolymer Crystallization 288
11.4.2 Nanofiller-Induced Copolymer Crystallization 291
11.4.2.1 Nanofiller-Induced Block Copolymer Crystallization 291
11.4.2.2 Random Copolymer Nanocomposite Crystallization 293
11.4.3 Crystallization of Polymers Grafted on Nanofillers 293
11.5 Effect of Grafting Density 293
11.6 Effect of Chain Length 293
11.7 Effect of Interfacial Interactions 295
11.8 Stereocomplex Crystallization of Polymer Blends 295
11.8.1 Simulation Details 296
11.8.2 Effects of Different Methods 297
11.8.2.1 Effect of Chain Length 297
11.8.2.2 Effect of Stretching 298
11.8.2.3 Effect of Nanofillers 298
11.8.2.4 Effect of Chain Topology 299
11.8.2.5 Effect of Chain Structure 300
11.9 Flow-Induced Polymer Crystallization 301
11.9.1 Flow-Induced Polymer Nucleation 301
11.9.2 Stretch-Induced Crystalline Structure Changes 306
11.10 Summary 308
References 309
12 Application, Recycling, Environmental and Safety Issues, and Future Prospects of Crystalline Polymer Composites 323
Busra Cetiner, Havva Baskan-Bayrak, and Burcu S. Okan
12.1 Introduction 323
12.2 Crystalline Polymers and Composites 324
12.2.1 Crystalline Polymers 324
12.2.2 Crystalline Polymer Composites 326
12.2.2.1 Crystalline Polymer Composites with Organic Reinforcements 328
12.2.2.2 Crystalline Polymer Composites with Inorganic Reinforcements 329
12.2.2.3 Crystalline Polymer Composites with Natural Reinforcements 330
12.3 Applications of Crystalline Polymer Composites 331
12.3.1 Automotive Applications of Crystalline Polymer Composites 331
12.3.2 Biomedical Applications of Crystalline Polymer Composites 334
12.3.3 Defense and Aerospace Applications of Crystalline Polymer Composites 335
12.3.4 Other Applications of Crystalline Polymer Composites 339
12.4 Recycling, Environmental, and Safety Issues of Crystalline Polymer Composites 340
12.4.1 Recycling of Glass Fiber-Reinforced Crystalline Polymer Composites 340
12.4.2 Recycling of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Crystalline Polymer Composites 341
12.4.3 Recycling of Carbon Nanotubes-Reinforced Crystalline Polymer Composites 342
12.4.4 Recycling of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Crystalline Polymer Composites 343
12.4.5 Environmental Impact and Safety Issues of Crystalline Polymer Composites 343
12.5 Future Prospects of Crystalline Polymer Composites 344
12.6 Conclusions 345
References 345
Index 359
