Physics of the Sun

16: Formation of the Sun and its Planets.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Star Formation.- 2.1. Galactic Structure.- 2.2. Stellar Properties.- 2.3. Planetary Indications.- 2.4. Interstellar Clouds.- 2.5. Observations of Forming Stars.- 2.5.1. T-Tauri Variable Stars.- 2.5.2. Nonemission, Nonvariable Pre-Main Sequence (PMS) Stars.- 2.5.3. Herbig-Haro Objects.- 2.6. Conditions for Cloud Collapse.- 2.7. Models for Star Formation.- 2.8. Modeling of Secondary Features.- 2.9. Dynamical Evolution.- 3. Cosmochemistry.- 3.1. Chronology.- 3.2. Nuclide Variations.- 3.3. Chemical Variations Among Chondritic Meteorites.- 3.4. Chemical Variations Among Differentiated Objects.- 4. Planet Formation.- 4.1. gd Gas-Dust Interaction.- 4.2. CD Disk Dynamics.- 4.3. Cpp Planetesimal Swarms.- 4.4. CPD Planet-Disk Interactions.- 4.5. CPP, CPPp Planetary Systems.- 4.6. CP(f, s)p Terrestrial Planet Formation.- 4.7. P, Pg Gaseous Protoplanet Contraction.- 4.8. WD, XD, BD Solar and External Effects on the Nebula.- 5. Implications for the Formation of the Sun and Planets.- Acknowledgement.- References.- 17: The Solar Neutrino Problem: Gadfly for Solar Evolution Theory.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Standard Theory of Solar Evolution.- 3. The Missing Solar Neutrinos 3.- 4. Have We Left Something Out?.- 4.1. Microscopic Physics 3.- 4.2. Rotation.- 4.3. Magnetic Fields.- 4.4. Accretion.- 4.5. Star Formation.- 5. The Exotic Models.- 5.1. Mixing.- 5.2. Varying G.- 5.3. Quark Catalysis.- 5.4. Depleted Maxwell Tail.- 5.5. Immiscible H-He.- 5.6. The Central Black Hole.- 5.7. Nonconventional Energy Transport.- 6. Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 18: Stellar Chromospheres, Coronae, and Winds.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Late-Type Stars.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.1.1. Overview.- 2.1.2. The Solar Case.- 2.1.3. Methodology.- 2.2. Observational Evidence for the Presence of Chromospheres in Late-.- Type Stellar Atmospheres.- 2.2.1. Spectral Diagnostics and Line Formation.- 2.2.2. Observational Summary and Location in the H-R Diagram.- 2.2.3. The Wilson-Bappu Effect.- 2.3. Observational Evidence for the Presence of Regions and Coronae in Late-Type Stellar Atmospheres.- 2.3.1. Transition Regions.- 2.3.2. Coronae.- 2.4. Chromospheric and Coronal Heating Mechanisms.- 2.4.1. Overview.- 2.4.2. Acoustic Wave Heating.- 2.4.3. Magnetic Heating Mechanisms.- 2.5. Observational Evidence for Mass Loss from Late-Type Stars.- 2.5.1. Main Sequence Stars.- 2.5.2. Circumstellar Absorption Lines.- 2.5.3. Chromospheric Emission Line Asymmetries.- 2.5.4. Circumstellar Dust Shells.- 2.5.5. Summary.- 2.6. Mass Loss Mechanisms for Late-Type Giants and Supergiants.- 2.6.1. Overview.- 2.6 2. Thermally Driven Winds.- 2.6.3. Radiation Driven Winds.- 2.6.4. Wave Driven Winds 88 3. The Winds and Coronae of Early-Type Stars.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. The Velocity and Mass Loss Rates Derived from Line and Continuum Observations.- 3.2.1. The Formation of P Cygni Profiles.- 3.2.2. The Free-Free Continuum Energy Distribution of Hot Stars.- 3.3. Coronal Gas in Early-Type Stars.- 3.3.1. Superionization of the Winds.- 3.3.2. X-Ray Observation of Early-Type Stars.- 3.4. Wind Dynamics.- 3.4.1. Radiation Forces on Line Opacity: Momentum Deposition Considerations.- 3.4.2. Radiative Acceleration.- 3.4.3. Instability of Line Driven Winds and the Consequences.- 3.4.4. Hybrid Models with a Base Coronal Zone.- 3.4.5. Magnetically Driven Winds and Magnetically Dominated Coronae.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 19: Solar and Stellar Magnetic Activity.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Solar and Stellar Magnetic Activity: A Phenomenological Comparison.- 2.1. Surface Magnetic Fields and their Effects on Stellar Radiative Flux.- 2.2. Direct Detection of Magnetic Fields on Stars Like the Sun.- 2.3. Ca II H and K Emission as Indicators of Stellar Magnetic Fields.- 2.4. Coronal Active Regions.- 2.5. Magnetic Activity Cycles.- 3. The Rotation/Activity/Age Connection.- 3.1. The Aging of Magnetic Activity and Rotation.- 3.2. Rotation as the Fundamental Determinant of Magnetic Activity.- 3.3. The Influence of Convection Zone Properties.- 3.4. The Vaughan-Preston Gap.- 3.5. The Evolution of Rotation and Magnetic Activity on the Sun.- 4. Avenues for Future Research.- 4.1. Observational Studies of Solar Magnetic Activity.- 4.2. Observational Studies of Stellar Magnetic Activity.- 4.3. Theoretical Studies.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 20: Effects of Solar Electromagnetic Radiation on the Terrestrial Environment.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Atmospheric Structure and Composition.- 2.1. Thermosphere.- 2.2. Stratosphere and Mesosphere Structure.- 2.3. Stratosphere and Mesosphere Chemistry.- 2.4. Tropospheric Chemistry.- 3. The Climate System.- 3.1. Current Questions.- 3.2. Introduction to Simple Climate Models.- 3.3. Tapping of Thermal Radiation by Atmospheric Constituents.- 3.4. Thermal Feedback by Clouds and Water Vapor.- 3.5. Anthropogenic Modulation of Trace Gases Important for Climate.- 3.6. Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation and the Seasons.- 3.7. Primitive Climate, the Carbon Cycle and the Faint-Early-Sun.- 4. Solar Radiation Drives the Biosphere.- 4.1. Origins of Photosynthesis.- 4.2. Photosynthesis in Action.- 4.3. Harvesting the Sunlight, Net Primary Productivity.- 5. Concluding Remarks.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 21: The Effect of the Solar Wind on the Terrestrial Environment.- 1. Introduction.- 2. General Morphology.- 3. Solar Wind and Geomagnetic Activity.- 3.1. Solar Wind Streams.- 3.2. Geomagnetic Response to Streams.- 3.3. Periodic Geomagnetic Activity.- 3.3.1. Geomagnetic Pulsations.- 3.3.2. Diurnal and Annual Variations.- 3.3.3. Solar Cycle and Longer Period Variations.- 4. Transfer Mechanisms at the Magnetopause.- 4.1. Magnetic Merging.- 4.2. Other Mechanisms.- 4.3. Composite Model.- 5. Magnetospheric Convection.- 5.1. Convection Morphology.- 5.2. Birkeland Currents, Alfven Layers, and Shielding.- 5.3. The Plasmasphere: a Convection/Corotation Forbidden Zone.- 5.4. Time Dependent Convection - The Substorm Cycle.- 5.5. Computer Modeling of Convection.- 5.6. Convection and Magnetic Merging in the Magnetotail.- 6. Magnetosphere Effects on the Ionosphere and Thermosphere.- 6.1. Low-Latitude Electric Fields and Currents.- 6.2. Parallel Electric Fields.- 6.3. Ionospheric Outflow.- 6.4. Effects on Thermosphere.- 7. Middle and Lower Atmosphere.- Acknowledgements 244.- References.- 22: Solar Energetic Particles and their Effects on the Terrestrial Environment.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Solar Energetic Particles and the Magnetosphere.- 3. Energy Loss Processes.- 3.1. Polar Cap Absorption.- 3.2. Ion Chemistry of the Middle Atmosphere: Influence of Solar Energetic Particles.- 3.3. Polar Glow Aurora: Optical Effects of Solar Energetic Particle Precipitation.- 4. Atmospheric Alterations and Nuclear Interactions.- 4.1. Alterations in Middle-Atmospheric Composition.- 4.2. Nuclear Interactions and C14 Production.- 5. Effects of Solar Particle Events.- 5.1. Effects on Radio Communication and Navigation.- 5.2. Effects on Global Atmospheric Electricity.- 5.3. Potential Impact on Climate.- 5.4. Solar Energetic Particles and the Evolution of the Atmosphere and Biosphere.- 6. Conclusion.- References.