Preface to the First Edition xi
Preface to the Second Edition xiii
About the Companion Website xiv
1 About this Book 1
1.1 Phonetics in a nutshell 2
1.2 The structure of this book 6
1.3 Terminology 8
1.4 Demonstrations and exercises 8
2 Articulatory Phonetics 9
Articulation in a nutshell 9
2.1 Phonation at the larynx 10
2.2 Basic articulatory terms 11
2.3 The articulation of consonants 14
2.3.1 Place of articulation 15
2.3.2 Manner of articulation 15
2.3.3 Other classification schemes 18
2.4 The articulation of vowels 20
3 Phonetic Transcription 24
Transcription in a nutshell 24
3.1 Types of transcription 25
3.2 Consonants 28
3.2.1 Plosives 29
3.2.2 Nasals 30
3.2.3 Fricatives 30
3.2.4 Affricates 31
3.2.5 Approximants 32
3.3 Vowels 33
3.4 Diacritics and other symbols 38
3.5 Transcription of General American English 39
3.5.1 Consonants 40
3.5.1.1 Aspiration, voicing, and devoicing 40
3.5.1.2 Coarticulation 41
3.5.1.3 Consonantal release 42
3.5.1.4 Flaps and taps 43
3.5.1.5 Glottal plosives 43
3.5.1.6 Velarization 44
3.5.1.7 Syllabic consonants 45
3.5.1.8 Intrusion 45
3.5.1.9 Duration 46
3.5.2 Vowels 48
3.5.2.1 Duration 48
3.5.2.2 Effects of following consonants 49
4 Place and Manner of Articulation of Consonants and Vowels 52
4.1 Consonants 53
4.1.1 Labials 55
4.1.2 Coronals 56
4.1.3 Dorsals 57
4.1.4 Gutturals 59
4.2 Additional manners of articulation 59
4.3 Vowels 60
4.4 Secondary articulations 63
5 Physiology of the Vocal Apparatus 66
Physiology in a nutshell 66
5.1 The subglottal system: lungs, bronchi, and trachea 69
5.1.1 Anatomy of the subglottal system 69
5.1.2 Movements of the lungs 71
5.1.2.1 Breathing in (inspiration, inhalation) 71
5.1.2.2 Breathing out (expiration, exhalation) 72
5.1.3 The volumes of the lungs and their control over time 72
5.1.4 Loudness and the air pressure in the lungs 74
5.2 Structure and function of the larynx 74
5.2.1 Anatomy of the larynx 75
5.2.2 Vocal fold vibration 78
5.2.2.1 The Bernoulli effect and the aerodynamic theory 78
5.2.2.2 The myoelastic theory of vocal fold vibration 81
5.2.2.3 Twoâmass theory of vocal fold vibration 83
5.2.2.4 Mucoâviscose, cover body, and flowâseparation theory 84
5.2.2.5 One cycle of vocal fold vibration 85
5.2.3 Loudness and larynx signal 86
5.2.4 Register 88
5.3 Vocal tract 89
5.3.1 Pharynx 89
5.3.2 Nasal tract and velum 90
5.3.3 Oral tract 92
6 Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types 95
Airstream mechanisms and phonation in a nutshell 95
6.1 Airstream mechanisms 96
6.1.1 Glottalic airstream mechanisms 96
6.1.2 Velaric airstream mechanism 100
6.2 Phonation types 102
6.3 Voicing, voicelessness, and aspiration in plosives 103
6.4 Common and rare sounds 110
7 Basic Acoustics 113
Basic acoustics in a nutshell 113
7.1 Sound waves 115
7.1.1 Sound waves are variations in air pressure 115
7.1.2 Origin and propagation of sound waves 115
7.1.3 The speed of sound 118
7.1.4 Relative positions within a sound wave 119
7.1.5 Longitudinal waves and transverse waves 120
7.2 Measuring sound waves 120
7.2.1 The microphone 121
7.2.2 The oscillogram or waveform 122
7.3 Acoustic dimensions and their units of measurement 123
7.3.1 Frequency 123
7.3.1.1 Period duration 124
7.3.1.2 Period duration and period frequency 125
7.3.1.3 Period frequency and wavelength 127
7.3.1.4 Representing F0 over time 128
7.3.2 Amplitude 129
7.3.2.1 Representing amplitude changes over time 134
7.3.3 Phase 136
8 Analysis Methods for Speech Sounds 139
Analysis in a nutshell 139
8.1 Digitizing acoustic signals 141
8.1.1 Digitizing in the time and amplitude domains 142
8.1.2 Sampling rate 143
8.1.3 Quantizing resolution 145
8.2 Types of acoustic signals 148
8.3 Analyzing acoustic signals 151
8.3.1 Fourier transformation 152
8.3.1.1 Summing up signals: Fourier synthesis 152
8.3.1.2 Decomposing signals: Fourier analysis 154
8.3.1.3 Harmonic frequencies 155
8.3.1.4 Discrete Fourier transformation and âfast Fourier transformationâ 158
8.3.1.5 Fourier transformation for nonâperiodic signals 158
8.3.2 What information can be seen in a spectrum? 159
8.3.3 âWindowingâ in spectral analysis 161
8.3.3.1 The relation between window size and spectral resolution 164
8.3.3.2 The relation between resolution in the time and frequency domains 165
8.3.4 Other spectral representations: the spectrogram 166
8.3.5 The LPC spectrum 169
8.3.6 The cepstrum and cepstrally smoothed spectrum 172
9 The Sourceâ"Filter Theory of Speech Production 175
The sourceâ"filter theory in a nutshell 175
9.1 Resonance 176
9.1.1 Resonating frequencies of cylindrical tubes 177
9.1.2 Resonating frequencies of nonâcylindrical tubes 180
9.2 Damping 183
9.3 Filters 183
9.3.1 Vocal tract filter 187
9.3.2 Radiation at the lips and nostrils 187
9.4 Formants 189
9.4.1 Formant frequencies 190
9.4.2 Formant bandwidth and quality 192
9.5 Sources for speech sounds 193
9.5.1 The glottal source: phonation for a modal voice 193
9.5.1.1 Jitter 196
9.5.1.2 Shimmer 197
9.5.1.3 Harmonicsâtoânoise ratio (HNR) 198
9.5.1.4 H1âH2 measure and spectral tilt 198
9.5.2 Breathy voice 198
9.5.3 Creaky voice 200
9.5.4 The noise source: turbulence 201
9.5.4.1 Whisper 202
10 Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds 206
Acoustic characteristics in a nutshell 206
10.1 Vowels 207
10.2 Consonants 213
10.2.1 (Central) approximants 213
10.2.2 Fricatives 215
10.2.3 Plosives 219
10.2.4 Nasals 221
10.2.5 Lateral approximants 223
10.2.6 Affricates 224
10.3 Summary 226
10.4 Variability and invariance 227
10.4.1 A theory of acoustic invariance 228
11 Syllables and Suprasegmentals 234
Syllables and suprasegmentals in a nutshell 234
11.1 Syllables 236
11.2 Stress 238
11.3 Length 243
11.4 Tone and intonation 245
11.4.1 Tone 246
11.4.2 Intonation 249
12 Physiology and Psychophysics of Hearing 256
Hearing in a nutshell 257
12.1 The external ear 258
12.2 The middle ear 259
12.2.1 Increase in pressure in the middle ear 259
12.2.2 Sound attenuation in the middle ear 260
12.2.3 Pressure equalization in the tympanic cavity 261
12.2.4 The oval window 262
12.3 The internal ear 262
12.3.1 Pressure waves in the cochlea 263
12.3.2 The basilar membrane as an oscillating body 265
12.3.3 Resonance theory 265
12.3.4 Objections to the resonance theory 266
12.3.5 Traveling wave theory 266
12.4 The structure of the basilar membrane 267
12.4.1 Outer hair cells 268
12.4.2 Inner hair cells 269
12.4.3 Frequency coding along the basilar membrane 270
12.4.4 Otoâacoustic emissions 271
12.5 Auditory frequency scales 272
12.5.1 Linear scales 272
12.5.2 Logarithmic scales 273
12.5.3 Mel scale 274
12.5.4 Bark scale 275
12.5.5 Equivalent rectangular bandwidth (ERB) scale 277
12.6 Auditory loudness scales 278
12.7 Auditory time scales 279
13 Speech Perception 281
Speech perception in a nutshell 282
13.1 Vowels 284
13.1.1 Extrinsic versus intrinsic normalization 285
13.2 Consonants 288
13.2.1 Approximants 289
13.2.2 Fricatives 290
13.2.3 Nasals 291
13.2.4 Plosives 292
13.3 Contributions of the motor theory of speech perception 295
13.3.1 Categorical perception 296
13.3.2 Is speech âspecialâ? 301
13.3.2.1 Nonâspeech perception 303
13.3.2.2 Animal perception 304
13.4 Theories of speech perception 305
13.5 The role of linguistic experience in speech perception 309
13.6 Summary 313
Appendices
A.1 Mass, Force, and Pressure 315
A.2 Energy, Power, and Intensity 317
A.3 The Decibel (dB) 320
A.3.1 RMS amplitude 320
A.3.2 RMS amplitude and loudness 324
A.3.3 Calculations with dB values 327
B.1 Physical Terminology 330
B.2 Mathematical Notations 332
C.1 Formant Values 336
C.2 Fundamental Frequency Values 337
D.1 Glossary 338
References 355
Index 368
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