About the Author ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Electrochromism: A Brief Note on the History and Recent Evolution 1
Part I Materials 7
2 Electrochromic Materials 9
2.1 Inorganic Electrochromic Materials 11
2.1.1 Transition Metal Oxide Cathodic Materials 12
2.1.2 Transition Metal Oxide Anodic Materials 23
2.1.3 Anodic and Cathodic â" Transition Metal Oxide Materials: V 2 O 5 28
2.2 2D Materials 31
2.2.1 2D Transitional Metal Oxides 32
2.2.2 Graphene 35
2.3 Organic Electrochromic Materials 36
2.3.1 Prussian Blue 36
2.3.2 Viologens: Small Molecules, Polyviologens, and Hybrid Composite Materials 38
2.3.3 Semiconducting Polymers 45
3 Mixed Ionic and Electronic Conductors 55
3.1 Semiconducting Polymers and Small Molecules 57
3.2 Structureâ"Property Relationship and Charge Transport in Disordered Organic Materials 62
3.3 Potential Impact of Mixed Conductors on the Design of New EC and Multifunctional Devices 65
4 Electrolytes 67
4.1 Liquid Electrolytes 68
4.2 Polymer Electrolytes: From Gel to Solid Polymers 69
4.2.1 Ionic Conductivity and Transport Properties in Polymer Electrolytes 81
4.3 Inorganic Electrolytes 85
5 Electrodes 89
5.1 Transparent and Conducting Oxides 89
5.2 Carbon-Based Electrode Materials 91
5.3 Metal Nanowires and Metal Grids 93
6 Critical Material Issues 99
Part II Devices 105
7 Device Structure: The Key Role of the Interfaces in the Device Design 107
7.1 Electrochromic Devices 108
7.1.1 All-Solid-State Double-Substrate Electrochromic Device 110
7.1.2 Monolithic Single-Substrate Electrochromic Device 116
7.2 Electrochromic Multifunctional Devices 121
7.2.1 Photoelectrochromic and Photovoltachromic: Device Architectures 122
7.2.1.1 Power Supply of Photoelectrochromic Devices: Semitransparent Silicon, DSSC, Polymers, and Perovskite PV Cell 128
7.2.2 Electrochromic and Electroluminescent Devices: ECOLEDs and ECLECs 140
7.2.2.1 Electroluminescence, Electrofluorescence, and Electrochromism: Multifunctional Devices Based on Thereof 151
7.2.3 Electrochromic Energy Storage Devices 156
7.2.4 Self-Rechargeable Electrochromic Transparent Battery and Self-Powered Photovoltaic Electrochromic Energy Storage Devices 163
8 Thin-Film Processing Technologies 169
8.1 Chemical Deposition 170
8.1.1 Spin Coating, Dip Coating, Spray Coating, and Inkjet Printing 170
8.1.2 Solâ"Gel Method 172
8.1.3 Electrochemical Deposition 173
8.1.4 Langmuirâ"Blodgett Film Deposition 174
8.1.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition 175
8.2 Physical Depositions 176
8.2.1 Thermal and Electron-Beam Evaporation 177
8.2.2 Sputtering Deposition 178
8.2.3 Pulsed Laser Deposition 178
8.2.4 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 179
9 Analysis of Device Performance 181
9.1 Optical Spectroscopy 182
9.1.1 UVâ"Vis Spectroscopy and Optical Properties 182
9.1.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 186
9.2 Electrochemical Analysis 187
9.2.1 Cyclic Voltammetry 188
9.2.2 Chronoamperometry 194
9.2.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy: Interface Properties and Ion Diffusion Constants 196
9.2.4 Cyclic Stability and Long-Term Durability 199
9.3 Chemical and Physical Methods for Electrochromism and Analysis of Material Properties 209
9.3.1 X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy 210
9.3.2 FTIR and Raman Spectroscopy 214
9.3.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 216
9.3.4 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 218
9.4 Characterization of Mixed Ionic and Electronic Conduction Materials 222
9.4.1 Direct Measurement of Ion Mobility in OMIECs 225
Part III Scale-up, Energy and Environment, and Next-generation Technologies 231
10 Construction of Smart Windows: From Laboratory to Industry Scale 233
10.1 Manufacturing Processes: Materials and Deposition Techniques 234
10.2 Scale-Up Procedures: Electrochromic Windows and Large-Area Photovoltaic Modules 248
10.3 Laminated Smart Windows and Adhesive Electrochromic Smart Films 261
11 Energy-Efficient Electrochromic Glazings for Green Buildings 263
11.1 Energy Demand and Consumption in Buildings: Energy Saving of Electrochromic Glazings 267
11.2 Effect of Electrochromic Glazings on Visual Comfort: Usable UDI and Dgi 270
12 Emerging and Next-Generation Technologies for Fabrication of Dynamic Tintable Windows 273
12.1 Smart Photoelectrochromic and Thermochromic Windows: Green Technologies Toward More Sustainable Buildings 273
12.2 Emerging and Next-Generation Technologies 283
12.3 The New Era of Artificial Intelligence: Toward Immersive Reality and Invisible Technologies 291
References 299
Index 337
